OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY 
OF 


D*4 


&ff" 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 
STEVEDORING  AND  STORAGE 


SHIPPING  SERIES 

TRAINING    FOR    THE    STEAM SH.TP    BUSINESS 

EDITORS: 

EMORY  R.  JOHNSON    PH.D.,   Sc.D. 

Dean  of  the  Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Com- 
merce, University  of  Pennsylvania. 

ROY  S.  MACELWEE,  PH.D. 

Director   of  the   U.    S.    Bureau   of   Foreign   and   Domestic 
Commerce. 

1.  Ocean   Steamship   Traffic  Management. 

BY  G.  G.  HUEBNER,  PH.D. 

Training  in  the  responsibilities  of  the  broker,  the 
freight  agent  and  other  traffic  agencies,  and  in  the 
forms  used  in  the  shipping  business. 

2.  Marine  Insurance. 

BY   S.   S.  HUEBNER,    PH.D. 

Training  in  the  important  responsibilities  of  the  marine 
insurance  agent  and  broker. 

3.  The  Law  of  the  Sea. 

BY'  GEORGE  L.  CANFIELD,  LL.B.,  AND  GEORGE  W.  DALZELL. 

Legal  relations,  rights,  duties,  and  obligations  of  ship- 
pers, steamship  owners,  operators,  masters,  and  sea- 
men; the  legal  relations  of  the  ship  from  construction 
contract  to  sale  as  salvage. 

4.  Merchant  Vessels. 

BY  ROBERT  RIEGEL,  PH.D. 

Their  types,  uses,  tonnage,  measurements,  and  con- 
struction ;  some  things  the  steamship  man  ashore  should 
know  about  ships. 

5.  Wharf    Management    and    Stevedoring  and  Storage. 

BY    R.    S.    MAC£LWEE,    PH.D.,    AND    THOMAS    R.    TAYLOR, 
A.M. 

Duties  of  the  pier  superintendent,  receiving  clerks,  tally 
men,  and  stevedore  foreman.  Includes  wharf  layout 
and  construction,  cargo-handling  machinery,  port  charges 
and  dues,  stevedoring,  longshoremen,  labor  problems, 
etc. 

6.  Steamship    Operation.     (Projected.) 


T-230D 


WHARF   MANAGEMENT 

STEVEDORING  AND  STORAGE 


BY 

ROY  s.  MACELWEE 

DEAN    OF    THE    SCHOOL    OF    FOREIGN    SERVICE,    GEORGE- 
TOWN   UNIVERSITY;    FORMERLY    DIRECTOR    OF 

THE    UNITED   STATES   BUREAU    OF.   FOREIGN 
AND  DOMESTIC   COMMERCE 


AND 

THOMAS  R.   TAYLOR 

ASSISTANT    DIRECTOR    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    BUREAU 
OF    FOREIGN    AND    DOMESTIC    COMMLUCli 


ILLUSTRATED 


D.  APPLETON  AND    COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  LONDON 

1921 


COPYRIGHT,    1921,     BY 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


£06 


V 


PRINTED    IN   THE   UNITED    STATES   OF   AMERtr* 


TO 
THE  HON.  JOSHUA  W.  ALEXANDER 

sometime  Secretary  of  Commerce  of  the 
United  States  and  Chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Merchant  Marine  and  Fisheries 
of  the  House  of  Representatives,  in  appre- 
ciation of  his  contribution  to  the  upbuilding 
of  American  foreign  trade,  shipping,  and 
safety  at  sea,  and  the  friendship  and  cour- 
tesy shown  to  the  authors  while  serving 
under  him  in  the  Department  of  Commerce 
and  as  his  representatives  to  the  conference 
for  relief  of  congestion  at  the  Port  of 
Havana,  Cuba, 

THIS  BOOK  IS  RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED 


M589760 


EDITORS'  PREFACE 

THIS  is  the  fifth  volume  of  a  series  dealing  with  the  business  of 
ocean  shipping  and  transportation.  The  first  volume,  Ocean  Steam- 
ship Traffic  Management,  by  Professor  G.  G.  Huebner,  bore  the 
following  Editors'  Preface: 

"This  volume  upon  the  management  of  ocean  steamship  traffic  is 
the  first  of  a  series  of  manuals  designed  to  assist  young  men  in 
training  for  the  shipping  business.  The  necessity  for  such  a  series 
of  manuals  became  evident  when,  as  a  result  of  the  Great  War,  the 
tonnage  of  vessels  und^r  the  American  Flag  was,  within  a  brief 
period,  increased  many  told.  To  carry  on  the  war,  and  to  meet  the 
demands  of  ocean  commerce  after  the  war,  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment, through  the  Shipping  Board  and  private  shipyards,  brought 
into  existence  a  large  mercantile  marine.  If  these  ships  are  to  con- 
tinue in  profitable  operation  under  the  American  Flag,  the  people 
of  the  United  States  must  be  trained  to  operate  them.  Steamship 
companies,  ship  brokers,  and  freight  forwarders  must  all  be  able  to 
secure  men  necessary  to  carry  on  the  commercial  and  shipping 
activities  that  make  use  of  the  ships.  A  successful  merchant  marine 
requires  ships,  men  to  man  the  ships,  and  business  organization  to 
give  employment  to  the  vessels. 

"In  its  Bulletin  upon  'Vocational  Education  for  Foreign  Trade 
and  Shipping'  (since  republished  as  'Training  for  Foreign  Trade/ 
Miscellaneous  Series  No.  97,  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Com- 
merce, for  sale  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents),  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education  includes  among  other  courses  sug- 
gested for  foreign  trade  training  two  shipping  courses  upon  subjects 
with  which  exporters  should  be  familiar,  namely,  'Principles  of 
Ocean  Transportation'  and  'Ports  and  Terminals.'  Although  such 
general  courses  are  helpful  to  the  person  engaging  in  the  exporting 
business,  a  training  for  the  steamship  business  as  a  profession  re- 
quires much  greater  detail  in  the  knowledge  of  concrete  facts  of  a 
routine  nature.  An  analysis  was  made  of  the  various  divisions  of 
the  steamship  office  organization  and  it  was  suggested  to  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board  that  as  no  literature  existed  of  sufficient 

vn 


viii  EDITORS'  PREFACE 

practicability  and  detail,  several  manuals  covering  the  principal 
features  of  shore  operations  should  be  written. 

"The  response  of  the  Shipping  Board  was  hearty.  The  Board 
appointed  Mr.  Emory  R.  Johnson  of  its  staff,  then  conducting  an 
investigation  of  ocean  rates  and  terminal  charges,  as  editor.  The 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  designated  Mr.  R.  S. 
MacElwee,  then  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  studies  in  foreign 
commerce.  Before  the  project  was  completed  Mr.  Johnson  severed 
his  connection  with  the  Shipping  Board  in  1919,  and  in  January, 
1919,  Mr.  MacElwee  became  Assistant  Director  of  the  Bureau  of 
Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  Department  of  Commerce.  The 
interest  of  the  editors  in  the  project  did  not  terminate,  however,  and 
their  close  cooperation  has  been  voluntarily  continued  out  of  con- 
viction that  the  works  will  be  helpful. 

"The  books  have  been  written  with  a  view  to  their  being  read 
by  individual  students  conducting  their  studies  without  guidance,  also 
with  the  expectation  that  they  will  be  used  as  class  text-books. 
Doubtless  colleges,  technical  institutes,  and  high  schools  having 
courses  in  foreign  trade,  shipping  business,  and  ocean  transportation 
will  desire  to  use  these  volumes  as  class  texts  in  a  manner  outlined 
in  the  'Training  for  the  Steamship  Business,'  by  R.  S.  MacElwee, 
Miscellaneous  Series  98,  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce, 
Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C.  It  is  expected 
that  evening  classes  and  part-time  schools  organized  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Federal  Board  of  Vocational  Education,  Chambers 
of  Commerce,  and  other  interested  organizations  will  find  the  manuals 
useful.  Should  these  volumes  accomplish  the  desired  purpose  of 
giving  the  American  people  a  somewhat  greater  proficiency  in  the 
business  of  operating  ships,  they  will  have  proved  successful." 

This  volume  upon  Wharf  Management,  Stevedoring,  and  Storage 
is  the  first  of  its  kind  to  be  published.  It  deals  comprehensively 
with  the  part  of  the  shipping  business  that  has  not  received  adequate 
consideration  in  the  past.  The  book  shows  that  large  economies  can 
be  brought  about  by  the  more  expeditious  and  economical  handling 
of  freight  at  terminals  and  by  the  subsequent  quicker  turn-about 
of  vessels.  The  book  should  be  of  value,  not  only  to  those  having 
direct  charge  of  wharf  administration,  stevedoring,  and  other 
terminal  operations,  but  also  to  others  who  are  desirous  of  knowing 
how  the  ocean  commerce  of  the  United  States  can  be  handled  more 

economically. 

J  THE  EDITORS 


AUTHORS'  PREFACE 

IN  presenting  a  volume  upon  Wharf  Management,  Stevedoring, 
and  Storage,  the  authors  realize  that  a  subject  so  complicated  can  be 
treated  only  suggestively  rather  than  exhaustively.  So  far  as  is 
known,  this  is  the  first  effort  to  put  between  covers  the  vocation 
of  loading  and  dispatching  ships  from  the  administrative  standpoint. 
We,  therefore,  trust  that  this  volume  will  take  its  place  in  the  series 
upon  ship  management  and  operation  and  will  blaze  the  trail  to  a 
closer  and  more  scientific  study  of  this  problem.  We  are  firmly  con- 
vinced that  the  principal  economies  in  ship  operation  and  the  success- 
ful competition  of  the  American  merchant  marine  on  the  high  seas 
depend  upon  these  terminal  operations.  Only  through  the  sys- 
tematic and  painstaking  study  of  all  the  elements  involved  in  the 
efficient  dispatch  of  vessels  can  these  economies  be  accomplished. 
We  trust  that  those  who  read  these  pages  will  gain  interest  in  more 
efficient  wharf  management. 

ROY  S.  MAC£LWEE 
THOMAS  ROTHWELL  TAYLOR 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

EDITORS'  PREFACE vii 

AUTHORS'  PREFACE ix 

CHAPTER 

I.    WHARF  EFFICIENJY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS i 

The  wharf  superintendent i 

Problems  of  the   directors i 

Good   management  of  ship   essential 2 

Profits  in  a  quick  turn-around 2 

Costs  per  day  in  ship  operation 3 

Interest   and   depreciation 3 

Items  of  expense  in  ship  operation 4 

Cost  of  holding  a  vessel  in  the  Port  of  New  York  ....  5 

Port  movements 5 

Port  charges 5 

Stevedoring  costs  in  relation  to  other  charges   ....  8 

Economies  that  could  have  been  effected 9 

By  more  careful  work 9 

By  faster  work 9 

Wharf  charges  and  dues 10 

Charges  against  the  vessel n 

Major  group n 

Minor  group n 

Charges  against  the  cargo 12 

Definition  of  items  in  the  account 12 

Definitions  vary  at  different  ports 13 

Difference  between  dockage  and  wharfage      .        .        .        .  13 

Difference  in  application  of  charges 14 

Pier  rent 14 

Cost  of  stevedoring 17 

Stevedore  rates  at  Philadelphia 17 

Satisfactory  statistics  lacking 22 

Shipping  Board  calculations 22 

Methods  of  reducing  terminal  costs  and  time  in  port  ...  24 

Increased  profits  by  skillful  stowing 29 

Loading    to    maximum    capacity 29 

Kinds  of  tonnage 29 

Increased  profits  through  prevention  of  damage     ....  32 

Prevention  of  damage  to  the  ship  or  injury  to  crew  ...  32 

Prevention  of  damage  to  the  cargo 33 

Saving   through    reduced    insurance    rates    and    depreciation 

charges 33 

II.     FROM  LAND  TO  WATER  CARRIER .       .34 

Loading   and  unloading 34 

Movement  of  cargo  by  lighters 34 

Grain 35 

Bunker  coal 35 

Heavy   articles 35 

Dangerous    articles 35 

River  and  canal  barges 35 

xi 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

II.     FROM  LAND  TO  WATER  CARRIER — Continued. 
Loading  and  unloading — Continued. 

Direct  connection  by  wharves 35 

Wharf  equipment 37 

Kinds  of  cargo 37 

Bulk  cargo 38 

Grain 38 

Oil  and  coal 38 

Liquid  cargo 39 

Ships'  supplies                                 , 39 

Uniform    package    freight 39 

General  cargo 40 

Dangerous  cargo 41 

Precious  cargo 41 

Types  of  carriers 42 

Side-port  vessels 42 

Hatch  vessels 42 

All-hatch  vessels 43 

Ocean-going  colliers 43 

Tank  vessels 43 

Refrigerator  ships .        .        .44 

III.  WHARF  OFFICE  ORGANIZATION 45 

The  general  wharf  superintendent 45 

The  pier  superintendent 46 

The  stowage  clerk 46 

The  store  clerk 47 

Baggage  department 47 

Baggage  master 47 

The  receiving  department 48 

The  chief  receiving  clerk 48 

The  assistant  receiving  clerk 48 

Hours  of  work 49 

The  cargo-sheet  clerk 49 

The  lighter  clerk 49 

The  extension  clerk 50 

Tallymen  or  checkers 50 

The  stevedore 51 

The  chief  or  boss  stevedore 51 

Longshoremen 52 

Timekeeper 52 

The  delivery  department 53 

The  detective  force 54 

IV.  THE  LONGSHOREMEN 55 

Longshoremen  and  the  importance  of  their  work  ....  55 

Nationality   and   skill 56 

Classification  according  to  skill 57 

Classification  according  to  trade 57 

Classification  according  to  actual  work  performed     ...  58 

Ways  of  building  up  a  skilled  personnel 58 

Methods  of  hiring  longshoremen 58 

Gang  work 59 

Union 62 

Wages 64 

Working  conditions  and  their  betterment 67 

National  Adjustment  Commission 68 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

V.     ACCOUNTING  AND  PAPER  WORK .74 

Steamship    accounting 74 

The  voyage  account 74 

Papers  for  inbound  freight 77 

Tally    slip 77 

Lighter  tally  sheet 78 

The  discharging  receipt  book 79 

Records  of  damaged  cargo go 

Report  of  damaged  cargo 82 

Special  damage  report 82 

Over  and  short  landed 83 

Monthly  report  of  cargo  in  excess   (over)    of  bill  of  lad- 
ing quantity 84 

Notice  to  remove  merchandise 85 

Storage  order 87 

List  of  goods  sent  to  general  order  store 88 

Customs   lien   notice 89 

Delivery    order 90 

Papers  of  the  (outbound)   receiving  clerk's  office       ...  91 

The  delivery  notice 92 

Dock   receipt 92 

Record  of  measurements .94 

The  cargo  list  or  sheet 97 

The  ship's  freight  manifest 97 

Outward  foreign  manifest '       .        .  97 

Memorandum  of  merchandise  for  the  wharf  superintendent  97 

The  stowage  plan 100 

VI.     CARGO  TRANSFER:  I.  METHODS  OF  TRANSFER 101 

Introductory  statement 101 

Transfer  through  side  ports 106 

Transfer  by  unassisted  man  power 106 

Transfer  by  hand  truck 106 

Hand-truck  transfer  and  loose-pulley  fall 107 

Transfer  by  mechanical  conveyor 108 

Transfer  through  all-over  hatches 109 

Prevailing  American  system no 

Brief  description  of  three  common  methods  .        ....        .  in 

Single  boom  and  up-and-down  fall  with  skid  .        .        .        .  in 

The  burton-and-fall  or  yard-and-stay  system  .        .        .        .112 

The  drum-end  man 115 

Cargo  mast 117 

VII.    CARGO  TRANSFER:  II.     CARGO  WINCHES  AND  SIGNALING  .       .       .  120 

Standard  practice 120 

Rigging xao 

Control 122 

Capacity 122 

Kinds  of  winches 122 

Right-hand  and  left-hand 122 

The  winch  drum 124 

The  drum  end 124 

Special  types  of  winches 124 

Electric  ship's  winches 126 

Dock  winches 127 

Care  of  electric  winches 130 

Starting  the   draft 132 


xiv  CONTENTS 


VII.     CARGO  TRANSFER:  II.  CARGO  WINCHES  AND  SIGNALING — Continued 

Signaling 132 

Stop 133 

Lower   slowly 134 

Up   slowly 134 

VIII.     CARGO  TRANSFER:  III.    DRAFTS 136 

Slings 136 

Transfer  of  freight 139 

Loading   a    safe 139 

Loading  barrels  and  hogsheads 139 

Loading  bags  of  sugar,  grain,  coffee,  etc 139 

Loading  beef 141 

Loading  eggs 142 

Loading  dried  apples 142 

Loading  pigs  and  billets 142 

Loading  steel  rails 143 

Loading  automobiles 144 

Loading  assembled  locomotives 144 

Most  important  types  of  containers 145 

IX.  TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS 146 

Transfer  by  crane 146 

The  stiff-leg  derrick 147 

A-frame  derrick 148 

Traveling   stiff-leg   derrick 149 

Guy    derrick 149 

Locomotive   crane 149 

Tower  crane 150 

Traveling  revolving  tower  crane 150 

Hammerhead  crane 151 

The  gantry 152 

The  full-arch  gantry  crane 153 

Hinged-boom  traveling  semiportal  gantry  crane   .        .        .  157 

Shop  crane 158 

Heavy-duty   cranes 160 

Bridge  crane 160 

Straight-line   crane 163 

Relative  advantages  of  ship's  tackle  and  shore  cranes  .        .        .  164 

Ship's  tackle  versus  crane  equipment 164 

Cranes  versus  ship's  tackle 165 

Use  of  specialized  equipment 166 

Continuous-motion  or  belt-conveyor  transfer  equipment  .        .  168 

The  banana  unloader 168 

Vertical  belt  conveyors 170 

The  elevator  conveyor 172 

Free-flowing  bulk  freight 173 

Bunkering  or  coaling  of  ships 174 

X.  STOWAGE  AND  THE  STOWAGE  PLAN 176 

Difficulty  of  stowing 176 

Planning  the  stowage 176 

Planning  by  the  booking  agent 176 

Planning  by  the   stevedore 176 

Methods  of  stowing 178 

Preparation  of  the  hold 178 

Stowage  of  bulk  freight 178 


CONTENTS  xv 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

X.     STOWAGE  AND  THE  STOWAGE  PLAN — Continued. 
Methods  of  stowing — Continued. 

Stowage  of  package  freight 179 

Mechanical  aids 179 

Dunnage 180 

Size  of  hold  gangs 181 

Drawing  up  the  stowage  plan 182 

Discussion  of  sample   stowage   plans 182 

Saluda 182 

Selected  23,ooo-ton  steamer 182 

Portsmouth 184 

XI.    STOWAGE  AND  STOWAGE  FACTORS 187 

Desirability  of  getting  full  cargo  paying  high   rates   .        .        .  187 

Commodities  paying  high  rates 187 

Getting  a  full  cargo 187 

Explanation  of  stowage  factors 188 

The  average  stowage  factor 191 

Selecting  cargo  by  lists  of  stowage  factors      ....  191 

Lessened  importance  of  obtaining  full  cargo  ....  193 

Stowing  cargo  with  low  stowage  factors 194 

Reducing   stowage   factors 195 

Advantages  of  reduction 196 

Reduction  in  war  period .        .  197 

Reduction  by  eliminating  broken  stowage 197 

Deck  loads 200 

XII.    LAWS  GOVERNING  STOWAGE  .       . 201 

Necessity  of  laws  and  regulations 201 

Laws  relative  to  seaworthiness  of  vessels       .....  202 

Governmental  laws  applicable  to  all  vessels     ....  202 

Governmental  laws  applicable  to  passenger  vessels  .        .        .  204 

Rules  of  insurance  underwriters 204 

Rules  of  classification  societies 205 

Laws  relative  to  the  stowage  of  certain  classes  of  goods   .        .  206 

Grain 207 

Live    stock 207 

Dangerous  goods 208 

XIII.  STOWAGE  FOR  SECURITY 215 

Damage  to  ship  or  crew 215 

Improper  position  of  the  center  of  gravity 215 

Shifting  of  cargo 219 

Dangerous    goods 221 

Damage  to  cargo 222 

Dangerous    goods 223 

Moisture 223 

Extremes  of  temperature 224 

Chafing  and  crushing 225 

Lack  of  ventilation 226 

Pilfering 226 

Vermin          .        .   * 227 

Wear   and   tear   in  transfer 228 

XIV.  CLEARING  THE  WHARVES 230 

Movement  of  merchandise  on  the  wharves 230 

Hand    trucks 231 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIV.  CLEARING  THE  WHARVES — Continued. 

Movement  of  merchandise  on  the  wharves — Continued. 

Electric   trucks 232 

Telphers 232 

Time  study  of  movement  at  New  York 233 

Sorting  coffee  on  wharves  at  New  Orleans 253 

Wharf  congestion  at  Havana,  Cuba 263 

Discussion    of  report  of  joint  commission 268 

Removal  of  goods  from  wharves  at  Philadelphia  ....  272 

XV.  DELIVERY  OF  MERCHANDISE  FROM  THE  WHARF 282 

Delivery  from  wharf  to  drays 282 

Cartage  delays 282 

Relief  through  a  store-door  delivery  system 285 

Delivery  from  wharf  to  railroad  cars 287 

Loading  box  cars 289 

General  instructions 289 

Car  loading 289 

Delivery  from  transit  shed  to  warehouse 296 

XVI.     WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE 299 

Warehousing 299 

Storage 302 

Notes 302 

Definitions 303 

Fundamentals 308 

Instructions  .        .        , 313 

Stowing 313 

Warehousing  of  merchandise 321 

Explanation  of  terms 322 

Standard  warehouse   rules   and  regulations        ....  323 

Standard  basis  for  classification  of  goods  for  storage      .        .  326 

Average  occupancy  of  warehouse  space      .        .        .        .        .  329 

Handling 331 

Uniform  cost  accounting 334 

Classification  of  expenses  in  detail 335 

System  illustrated  by  a  standard  warehouse  constructed  in  1920  338 

INDEX 347 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Side  ports.     A  Great  Lakes  package  freight  steamer  ...  42 

2.  Plan  of  wharf-office  organization 45 

3.  Voyage  account 75 

4.  Expenses  not  apportioned  to  voyage  accounts  ....  76 

5.  Tally  slip  to  delivery  clerk 78 

6.  Tally  slip  to  receiving  clerk 78 

7.  Lighter  tally  sheet 79 

8.  Page  from  the  discharging  receipt  book 80 

9.  Ship  officer's  report  of  damaged  cargo 81 

10.  Dock  superintendent's  or  receiving  clerk's  report  of  damaged 

cargo 81 

11.  Special  report  of  unusual  or  extensive  damage  or  in  cases  of 

excessive   claims 82 

12.  "Over  and  short  landed"  form 83 

13.  Report  of  excess  cargo   . 85 

14.  Final  removal  notice 86 

15.  Storage  order  to  trucking  company  to  transfer  merchandise 

from  wharf  to  public  warehouse 87 

1 6.  Record  of  cargo  sent  to  general  order  stores   ....  88 

17.  Lien  notice  to  the  collector  of  customs 89 

1 8.  Truckman's  pass  to  permit  him  to   remove  goods  from  the 

wharf 91 

19.  Delivery  notice 91 

20.  Dock  receipt 93 

21.  Measurement    record 94 

22.  Cargo  list 95 

23.  Official  manifest  for  the  collector  of  customs  ....  96 

24.  Notice  of  space  sold 97 

25.  Stowage  chart 99 

26.  Stowage  chart 100 

27.  Stopping  the  swing  when  loading  with  single  boom  and  skid  .  112 

28.  Yard-and-stay  or  burton  system 113 

29.  Mast  booms  and  winches  between  two  hatches  .        .        .        .114 

30.  Drum-end  man  at  work 115 

31.  Ship  boom  and  cargo  mast  system 118 

32.  Blocks  and  shackles  attached  to  cargo  mast  equipment,  Chelsea 

Piers,  N.  Y 119 

33.  Light  duty  rig 121 

34.  Blocks  at  the  peak  of  a  boom.     Heavy  duty  rig  .        .        .        .121 

35.  Masthead  view  of  right  and  left  hand  winches,  winch  runner, 

boom,  draft,  and  hatch  opening 123 

36.  Electric  dock  winch — stationary 127 

36a.  Electric  dock  winch  with  portable  control  switch       .        .        .  129 

37.  Portable  electric  dock  winch  (light  duty) 130 

xvii 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

38.  Stop 133 

39.  Continue  lowering    . .134 

40.  Up  slowly  (short  movements  of  the  wrist) 134 

41-  Up       .        .        .        .        . 134 

42.  Up  slowly.     Signaled  by  bringing  fingers  and  thumb  together 

in  pinches 135 

43.  Single  hook 136 

44.  Rope  sling 137 

45.  Long  rove  and  bite 137 

46.  A  web  sling  for  soft  bags 137 

47.  Cant  hooks,  used  to  transfer  barrels 138 

48.  A  dangerous  method  of  transfer 138 

49.  Platform  sling  or  airplane 138 

50.  Slinging  a  safe 139 

51.  Barrels  slung  "married" 139 

52.  Slinging  a  hogshead 139 

53.  A  web  sling  draft  of  bags 141 

54.  A  net  sling  for  beef 141 

55.  Platform  sling  with  angle  irons  to  protect  fragile  cases  .        .  142 

56.  Platform  for  loading  iron  and  other  metals  in  pigs  .        .        .  142 

57.  Chain  sling  for  steel  rails 143 

58.  Double  chain  sling  for  large  iron  pipes 143 

59.  Slinging    automobiles 144 

60.  Loading  assembled  locomotives 144 

61.  A  timber  stiff-leg  derrick 146 

62.  Guy  derrick 147 

63.  Masthead  top  irons  of  a  guy  derrick 148 

64.  Spider  plate  and  shackles 148 

65.  Guy  spider  plate 148 

66.  Locomotive   crane 149 

67.  A  traveling  revolving  tower  crane  for  shipyard  work      .        .  151 

68.  Heavy  duty  revolving  hammerhead  tower  crane       .        .        .152 

69.  A  gantry  crane  with  traveling  hoist      .        .        .        .        .  153 

70.  A  full-arch  gantry  revolving  jib  crane 154 

71.  Half-arch    or    semiportal    gantry    revolving    jib    crane    with 

fixed  jib 155 

72.  A  light-duty  full-arch  (portal)  gantry  revolving  jib  crane  with 

hinged  boom 156 

73.  A  heavy-duty  full-arch  gantry  revolving  crane  with  a  hinged 

boom 157 

74.  Shop  crane 158 

75.  A  bridge  crane.     Capacity  unloading  coal,  400  tons  per  hour  159 

76.  A  straight-line  wharf  crane 161 

77-  Revolving  gantry  cranes 162 

78.  Straight-line  cranes 162 

79.  Banana  unloader 169 

80.  A  vertical  belt  conveyor 171 

81.  Loading  ship  by  means  of  a  vertical  belt  conveyor  and  gravity 

roller  conveyors  to  the  wings 172 

82.  Inboard  profile  chart 183 

83.  Storage  plan  of  SS.  Portsmouth  making  two  ports  of  call       .  185 

84.  Stability    curves 216 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

FIG.  PAGE 

85.  Hand   truck 231 

86.  Improper  loading ,        .        .        .231 

87.  Proper  loading 231 

88.  Illustrating  cleats  and  chocking 290 

89.  Assorted  loading — 200  bags  or  sacks   and  50  barrels  in  36- 

foot  car 292 

90.  Assorted  loading — 100  bags  or  sacks,  60  cases,  and  60  bar- 

rels in  36-foot  car 293 

91.  Assorted  car  loading 294 

92.  Typical  bag  or  sack  loading 295 

93.  Warehouse    methods 300 

94.  Warehouse    methods 301 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

STEVEDORING  AND  STORAGE 

CHAPTER  I 

WHARF   EFFICIENCY   AND    SHIPPING   PROFITS1 

Wharf  Superintendent. — The  main  consideration  of  the  wharf 
superintendent  is  to  help  make  a  profit  for  the  steamship  company  to 
which  he  is  responsible.  The  merchant  marine  of  any  country  is  the 
sum  total  of  all  those  privately  owned  and  operated  ships  that  rep- 
resent the  capital  investment  of  their  owners  and  must  be  so  operated 
as  to  earn  a  return  on  that  investment.  The  company's  freight 
agent  may  show  great  energy  and  considerable  skill  in  securing  cargo 
for  the  ship,  but  his  abilities  are  checked  by  the  prices  fixed  by 
supply  and  demand  in  the  cargo-space  market  as  reflected  in  the 
prices  that  we  know  as  steamship  rates.  Of  course,  in  abnormal 
times  when  demand  far  exceeds  the  supply,  many  companies  may 
exist  under  various  kinds  of  bad  management  and  still  make  a  profit ; 
in  such  times  it  is  not  very  difficult  for  the  freight  agent  to  nil  his 
ship  at  high  prices  for  the  space,  even  with  poor  service  and  extrava- 
gant costs. 

Problems  of  the  Directors. — Likewise,  the  gentlemen  around 
the  green  table  who  lay  out  the  voyage  of  the  ship,  the  ports  at 
which  they  are  to  call,  the  services  inaugurated,  etc.,  must  show 
rare  judgment  and  knowledge  of  the  world's  commerce,  and  they 
prosper  in  accordance  with  their  ability  to  judge  the  world's  markets 
for  steamship  transportation.  However,  skillful  as  they  may  be, 
their  abilities  are  limited  largely  by  the  condition  of  the  world 
shipping — matters  quite  beyond  their  control.  Fortunes  were  made 

1  By  R.  S.  MacElwee  and  Thomas  R.  Taylor. 

I 


2  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

at  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  not  because  of  any  particular 
ability  on  the  part  of  those  who  made  them,  but  because  of  the 
fortunate  circumstance  that  they  happened  to  have  ships  when  ships 
were  badly  needed. 

Good  Management  of  Ship  Essential. — Good  management 
may  be  shown  in  the  operation  of  the  ship,  as  well  as  in  its  con- 
struction and  design.  The  extent  to  which  good  management  is 
shown  is  reflected  in  the  company's  success  and  profits.  Efficient 
management  ashore  and  afloat  is  essential  to  success  in  time  of 
normal  shipping  conditions  because  of  the  peculiar  intensity  of  inter- 
national maritime  competition. 

Even  if  all  forms  of  management  afloat  and  ashore  be  good  and 
efficient,  in  normal  times  of  close  competition  and  low  freight  rates 
the  pier  superintendent  can  make  or  break  the  steamship  company 
by  his  ability  or  lack  of  ability  to  handle  freight  quickly  and  ex- 
peditiously  over  the  wharves  at  the  company's  terminals  and  by  the 
skill  of  his  stevedores  in  stowing  freight  for  the  maximum  yield  for 
each  voyage.  There  is  no  single  point  in  the  whole  shipping  business 
where  efficiency  of  organization  and  management  is  so  important  in 
spelling  loss  or  profit  as  at  those  points  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
wharf  superintendent.  By  a  quick  turn-around  of  the  ship,  shorten- 
ing her  days  in  port,  by  loading  her  to  her  maximum  earning  capacity, 
and  by  prevention  of  claims  for  damage  or  loss,  the  wharf  super- 
intendent can  be  the  greatest  single  profit-maker  of  a  steamship 
company. 

Profit  in  a  Quick  Turn-around. — The  earning  power  of  a  ship 
is  measured  largely  by  the  percentage  of  idle  days  in  port  as  com- 
pared with  the  active  days  steaming  at  sea.  Recent  statistics  show 
that  even  under  the  pressure  of  war  conditions  many  of  the  Shipping 
Board's  fleet,  and  also  many  ships  of  private  lines,  spend  more  than 
half  of  the  days  in  a  year  in  port.  One  set  of  figures  showed  a 
relation  of  fifty-three  days  in  port  to  forty-seven  days  at  sea.  When 
a  ship  is  tied  up  for  loading  or  discharging,  or  for  repairs,  or  for 
other  purposes,  it  represents  simply  a  liability  to  the  company  owning 
her.  She  represents  an  asset  only  when  she  is  carrying  cargo  from 
point  to  point.  Freight  rates  are  paid  to  have  cargo  transported — 
this  is  the  service  to  be  rendered.  The  ship  is  earning  only  when  it 
is  rendering  this  service.  It  is,  therefore,  important  to  attain  quick 
discharge  and  loading  of  the  ship  at  port  in  order  to  make  her  pay 
by  carrying  cargo. 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS         3 

Costs  Per  Day  in  Ship  Operation. —  The  amount  of  the  over- 
head costs  in  port  are  appalling  to  the  layman  not  familiar  with 
shipping.  In  fact,  many  of  the  deck  and  engine  personnel  of  the 
new  American  merchant  marine  who  received  their  training  in  the 
United  States  Navy  or  nautical  schools  have  little  knowledge  of 
cargo  matters  in  merchant  shipping,  and  are  lacking  in  appreciation 
of  many  matters,  especially  time.  The  overhead  charges  while  in  port 
of  a  large-sized  cargo-carrier,  at  present-day  ship  values  (1920),  is 
from  $2,000  to  $4,000  per  day. 

To  be  explicit  as  to  the  daily  cost  of  operation  we  may  take 
figures  of  a  few  small  vessels,  representative  of  the  average  small 
or  middle-sized  tramp.  These  are  operating  costs  for  complete 
voyages  (1919): 

1.  The  Mariners  Harbor,  3,535  dead-weight  tons,  had  the  fol- 
lowing average  daily  operating  costs  for  two  voyages  of  33  days 
each:  First  voyage,  $855.34;  second  voyage,  $678.40;  average  for 
the  two  voyages,  $766.87  per  day.     To  this  may  be  added  the  over- 
head charges   against   depreciation   and   interest,   $287.67   per   day. 
This  makes  a  total  of  $1,054.54  Per  day  f°r  tne  two  complete  voyages. 
Even  yet,  the  loss  of  earning  power  while  held  in  port  is  not  included 
in  these  figures. 

2.  The  Mineola  averages  for  a  voyage  of  37  days  $1,080.36 
per  day.    To  this  must  be  added  depreciation  and  interest,  $333  per 
day,  making  a  total  of  $1,413.36  per  day  for  the  voyage,  excluding 
loss  of  earning  power  while  in  port. 

3.  The  Sacramento,  7,462  dead-weight  tons,  made  a  trip  from 
San  Francisco  to  the  west  coast  of  South  America  and  up  to  Wilming- 
ton, N.  C.   (1918).     The  average  daily  expenses  were  $1,169  an<^ 
the  depreciation  and  interest  $614,  making  a  total  of  $1,783  per  day, 
excluding  loss  of  earning  power  while  in  port. 

4.  The  Amacortes,  7,478  dead- weight  tons,  made  a  trip  from 
Seattle  to  the  west  coast  of  South  America  and  back  to  Baltimore 
(September  and  October,  1918),  with  an  average  of  $1,317.75  per 
day  for  operating  costs,  and  $577.85  for  depreciation  and  interest, 
totaling  $1,895.60  per  day  for  the  voyage. 

Interest  and  Depreciation. —  Mr.  Rossiter,  for  some  time 
Director  of  Operations  of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board,  in  a 
hearing  before  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  in  October,  1919, 
stated  that  the  interest,  insurance,  and  depreciation  amounted  to 
about  16  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  ship.  Therefore,  when  a  ship 


4  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

is  in  port  this  one  item  alone  amounts  to  a  large  sum,  quite  aside 
from  the  wages  and  subsistence  of  officers  and  crew,  the  fuel  that  is 
necessary  to  keep  the  ship  warm  in  winter,  to  operate  the  winches, 
electric  dynamos,  and  other  machinery  on  board,  and  such  charges  as 
berthage,  watching,  etc.  Considering,  therefore,  operating  cost,  in- 
surance, depreciation,  and  interest  on  the  investment,  and  then  the 
loss  in  earning  power  for  every  day  the  ship  is  not  moving  goods 
from  place  to  place,  one  will  readily  see  that  the  amount  of  daily 
loss  for  a  ship  in  port  piles  up. 

Items  of  Expense  in  Ship  Operations. — A  list  of  items  by 
which  the  expenses  of  operating  a  ship  are  calculated  is  given  below ; 
an  actual  case  is  given  as  an  illustration. 


DETAILS  OF  DIRECT  OPERATING  EXPENSE 

Type  of  ship Cargo 

Size  of  ship 8,700  dead-weight  tons 

Speed  of  ship iol/2  knots  per  hour 

Fuel    Coal 

Trade    route Between  New  York  and 

West  African  coast 

Total  length  of  voyage 12,800  nautical  miles 

Voyages   per   year 3 

Total  tons  cargo  carried  per  year  (full  cargo  in  each  direction)  : 

Outbound    20,136 

Inbound    21,866 

Total    42,002 

Freight  rates: 

Outbound    $25  per  ton 

Inbound    .v 20  per  ton 

Total  revenue  from  freight  charges $940,720 

Direct  operating  expense: 

Fuel    $165,167 

Loading  and  discharging 147,007 

Repairs  and  maintenance   69,600 

Wages    65,750 

Port  charges   39,148 

Agency  fees  23,518 

Subsistence 23,269 

Stores  and  supplies 1 1,200 

Husbandry    (management)     4,800 

Total $549459 

Insurance,  depreciation,  and  interest  are  not  considered  to  be  direct 
operating  expense. 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS 


Account 

Cost  per  annum 

Cost  per  diem 

$38  525  oo 

$10^  « 

46  230  oo 

T1UJ-JJ 

126  66 

Reserve  for  maintenance  and  repairs 
per  dead-weight  ton  per  month.  . 
Insurance: 
Hull  and  machinery  at  6  per  cent.  .  . 
Marine  at  3^4  Per  cent 

65,790.00 

46,230.00 

28  8cn  7« 

180.02 
126.66 

*7Q  ifi 

\Var  Risk  at  5  per  cent 

•*V:rj«^j 

•jft  eo  ^  OO 

/y.iu 
Tr\£  c  e 

Protective  and  indemnity 

2  T  «7  Cn 

1UJO  J 

5  Qf 

Seamen's    

.yi 

T.Q8 

Total.. 

$266,T>I.25 

$7^.4.0 

COST  OF  HOLDING  A  VESSEL  IN  THE  PORT  OF  NEW  YORK 

The  excessive  cost  of  a  vessel  in  port  is  given  in  detail  by  Mr. 
T.  W.  Cleworth,  of  the  Port  Facilities  Commission  of  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board.2 

Port  Movements. — The  vessel  arrived  in  New  York  from 
Genoa,  Italy,  in  August,  1918,  with  2,713  tons  of  wines,  hats,  cherries, 
marble,  and  general  cargo,  and  sailed  the  same  month  with  3,783.1 
tons  of  sugar,  cocoa,  canned  goods,  and  Red  Cross  supplies  for 
Archangel,  Russia.  The  total  time  spent  in  port  was  14  days,  17 
hours,  and  24  minutes. 

TIME  SPENT  IN  PORT  BY  A  SELECTED  STEAMER 


Hours 

Minutes 

At  anchor,  Brooklyn,  off  quarantine  

TO 

JA 

At  Brooklyn  pier  waiting  commencement  of  discharge 
Discharging  and  loading  cargo  at  Brooklyn  pier.  ..  . 
At  loading  berth  awaiting  completion  of  coaling.  .  .  . 
Time    between    departure    from    loading    berth    and 

17 
251 

42 

2? 

15 

00 

oo 

cc 

jj 

Total   

"3S3 

24. 

Port    Charges. — The    charges    against   the    vessel    during   the 
period  that  it  was  in  port  were  as  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


J  T.  W.  Cleworth,  "Economies  Effected  by  the  More  Rapid  Turn-around 
of  Vessels  in  United  States  Ports."     Mimeographed  memorandum,  1919. 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

PORT  EXPENSES  OF  A  SELECTED  STEAMER 


INWARD   CHARGES 


$78.47 

117.50 

15-00 

3,ioo.oo 

191.25 

56.00 

188.82 

20.50 

3-75 


Charges  against  vessel 

Pilotage  from  sea  to  anchorage 

Towage  from  Red  Hook  to  Brooklyn  pier.  , 
Taking  Captain  from  Bay  Ridge  to  Battery. 

Wharfage    (dockage) , 

Shifting  vessels  by  tugs 

Watching    ship 

Tonnage  tax   (6  cents  per  net  register  ton 

3,147    tons) 

Customs  fees 

Boatmen  running  lines  at  berthing  of  vessel. 

Total  inward  charges  against  vessel.  . . . 


Charges  against  cargo 
Stevedoring 

Discharging  2,713  payable  tons  at  62.5  cents 

per    ton $1,695.1 

Extra    labor    (overtime,    lost    time,    tiering, 

etc.)    1,990.98 

Winchmen 220.80 

Clerking    503.00 

Coopering    366.50 

Watching  cargo 240.00 

Lights  for  ship  and  cargo 185.00 

Miscellaneous  charges — extra  service  of  cus- 
toms inspectors,  etc 181.00 

Total  inward  charges  against  cargo 

Total   inward  charges 

OUTWARD    CHARGES 

Charges  against  vessel 

Pilotage  at  sea 

Towage  from  pier  to  stream 1 12.50 

Wharfage  (dockage)   2,400.00 

Shifting  vessel  by  tugs  1 15.00 

Watching  ship   144.00 

Surveys  (Board  of  Port  Wardens)   15.00 

Clearance  fees  (including  $5  brokerage) 7.70 

Boatmen  running  lines  at  unberthing  of  vessel  3.75 
Additional  expense  incurred  on  account  of  re- 
turn of  vessel  to  port  after  clearance  to 

make   repairs    • 681.82 

Total  outward  charges  against  vessel.  . .  . 


$3,771.29 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS 


Charges  against  cargo 
Stevedoring 
Loading  5,398  tons  at  65  cents  per  ton  .... 
Extra   labor    (overtime,    lost   time,    tiering, 
etc.)    

$3,508.70 

1,421.18 
37140 
647.76 
53-00 
136.00 
172.00 
258.38 
125.00 
617.68 

IIO.OO 

94.50 

$7,515.60 
$3,036.30 

Winchmen     

Clerk  hire  

Coopering    

Watching  cargo  ." 

Lights  for  ship  and  cargo  

Hire  of  hoister  

Building  bulkheads  and  placing  dunnage   .... 
Removing  wooden  lining  in  between  decks  .  .  . 
Miscellaneous  charges    

Total  outward  charges  against  cargo 

$2,925.20 

57.50 
53.60 

Bunkering  charges 
Loading  and  trimming  i,539  tons  of  coal  .... 
Hire  of  hoister  

Tallying  coal   

Total  bunkering  charges   

$1,469.16 

1,685.21 
44-59 
1,583.25 

i  ,899.90 

2,700.30 
4,818.90 

Total  outward  charges 

$14,131.35 

$14,201.31 

$37,486.86 
$2,499.12* 

CHARGES   NOT  CLASSED   AS   INWARD  OR  OUTWARD 

Port  pay-roll  (15  days)                  

Supplies  consumed  in  port  —  15  days 
Coal       

\Vater  and  oil                              

Interest  —  5  per  cent  on  $770,500  for  15  days.  . 
Depreciation  —  6  per  cent  on  $770,500  for   15 
days        

Reserve   for   maintenance    and    repairs    at    85 
cents  per  dead-weight  ton  per  month 

Insurance  —  hull   marine  war  risk  etc        .      . 

Total  charges  not  classed  as  Inward  or 
Outward   

$  9,154.20 
I4,I3L35 
14,201.31 

Total  charges 
Inward    

Outward                           ...                . 

Others    (above) 

Total  daily  expense  (15  days)   

*  Not    $4,371.45    as    given    by    Cleworth,    who    included    charter    hire    in    his 
calculation. 


8  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Stevedoring  Costs  in  Relation  to  Other  Charges. — The 
cost  of  stevedoring  cannot  be  measured  alone  by  the  amount  of 
money  expended  in  the  handling  and  transfer  of  cargo.  The 
time  consumed  in  loading  or  discharging  must  be  considered  an 
important  factor  in  determining  cost  because  of  its  influence  on 
wharf  charges  and  overhead  expenses.  By  using  the  labor  of  only  a 
few  men  a  cargo  may  possibly  be  discharged  at  a  relatively  low 
actual  cost,  but  the  operation  may  cover  a  period  of  several  weeks, 
during  which  time  the  vessel  is  not  earning  money  and  the  harbor 
and  overhead  costs  continue  to  mount  up.  Another  owner  may, 
by  the  aid  of  a  large  number  of  men  and  a  complete  transfer 
equipment,  unload  his  vessel  in  one  day.  The  amount  of  money 
expended  for  stevedoring  may  be  greater  than  in  the  first  case,  but 
there  is  a  large  saving  iu  overhead  costs  and  wharf  charges. 

A  summary  of  the  results  of  a  study  of  the  stevedoring  costs  for 
a  number  of  vessels,  showing  time  and  pay-roll  costs,  is  given  in  the 
table  on  page  23. 

The  vessel  selected  was  a  steel  cargo  and  passenger  steamer  of 
6,450  dead-weight  tons  (summer),  a  total  bale  capacity  of  290,955 
cubic  feet,  and  a  total  grain  capacity  of  320,840  cubic  feet.  Its 
permanent  bunkers  held  811  tons  of  coal  and  it  had  4  holds,  5 
hatches,  and  6  winches. 

The  total  daily  cost  of  holding  this  small  vessel  in  port  was 
$2,499.12,  or  in  round  numbers  $2,500.  This  is  the  generally  ac- 
cepted figure  taken  in  making  rough  averages.  But,  obviously,  much 
of  this  expense  is  unavoidable.  The  vessel  must  discharge  its  cargo 
and  take  on  coal,  supplies,  and  freight.  There  is  little  use  in  point- 
ing out  how  much  it  costs  to  hold  a  vessel  in  port  if  keeping  it  there 
is  essential  to  its  operation.  What  must  be  shown  is  why  some  of 
this  cost  is  unnecessary  and  how  it  can  be  avoided.  This  will  be 
done  for  this  particular  case  and  then  the  general  principles  of 
saving  in  port  expenses  will  be  pointed  out. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the  total  cost  of  loading  vessels 
in  1918  averaged  about  $7,760.  The  average  time  in  loading  was 
5.37  days.  Probably  the  smallest  value  that  could  be  placed  on  a 
day's  time  of  one  of  these  vessels  was  $2,000,  so  that  at  least  $10,740 
was  consumed  in  overhead  expense  during  the  loading  operation. 
That  is,  the  cost  of  stevedoring  was  less  than  the  value  of  the  time 
lost.  Speeding  up  would  have  increased  the  stevedoring  charges  in 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS        9 

all  probability,  but  the  total  cost  of  loading  undoubtedly  would  have 
been  reduced. 

Economies  That  Could  Have  Been  Effected. — The  follow- 
ing summary  of  the  economies  that  could  have  been  effected  by 
more  careful  work  on  this  selected  steamer  is  taken  largely  from 
Mr.  Cleworth's  monograph: 

By  More  Careful  Work 

1.  Wharfage  (dockage)  charged  against  inward  voyage 

after  discharging  ceased $      700.00 

2.  Extra  labor  for  discharge 

No  steam  or  insufficient  steam  at  hatch 247.30 

Detention    to    three   gangs   getting    ready    and    re- 
rigging 126.50 

Allowance  for  slow  working  of  hoist 79-2° 

Waiting  for  lights 16.23 

Broken  winch 8.40 

3.  Wharfage    (dockage)    charged    against    vessel    after 

loading    ceased 600.00 

4.  Direct  expenses  connected  with  return  of  vessel  to 

port    for    repairs 681.82  * 

5.  Lack  of  steam  in  loading 33-3O 

6.  Waiting  for  steam  in  bunkering I73.2O 

7.  Loss  of  four  days'  time  in  returning  to  port   (avoid- 

able by  careful  bunkering) *  1 1 ,925.24  * 

*  These   expenses  are  unusual,  but  are   shown  'because  they   actually  occurred   in 
this  case. 

By  Faster  Work 

In  addition  to  the  economies  that  could  have  been  effected  by 
more  careful  work,  large  savings  could  have  been  made  by  faster 
work.  It  is  impossible  to  give  these  accurately,  but  an  estimate  can 
be  made.  Considering  only  the  most  important  port  expenses  that 
would  accrue,  whether  the  vessel  was  being  worked  or  not,  we  have 
the  following  as  the  daily  expense  of  holding  the  vessel  idle  in  port. 

Overhead  charges $2,605.82 

Wharfage    (dockage)    366.67 

Vessel  supplies   1 15.32 

Port  pay-roll    97-94 

Watching  ship  and  cargo  and  lighting 62.21 


Total    $3,247.96 

If,  therefore,  the  stevedoring  could  have  been  speeded  up  by 
use  of  machinery  and  by  other  means  so  that  five  days  were  saved, 
the  total  saving  would  have  been  about  $16,000.  It  is  scarcely 


io  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

probable  that  this  faster  work  would  have  cost  more,  and  it  certainly 
would  not  have  cost  $16,000  more. 

This  study  is  given  in  detail  because  it  illustrates  a  number  of 
factors  that  must  be  considered  more  fully.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  most  important  charges  are  for  wharfage,  stevedoring,  and  over- 
head, and  these  costs  demand  more  extended  treatment. 

WHARF  CHARGES  AND  DUES  3 

Wharf  charges  are  but  a  part  of  terminal  charges  which  have 
been  grouped  and  defined  by  Mr.  C.  O.  Ruggles  as  follows : 

Port  terminal  charges  are  the  charges  levied  at  a  port  for  the 
use  of  facilities  and  for  various  services  incident  to  the  movement  of 
traffic  through  a  port.  In  this  report  these  charges  have  been  divided 
into  (l)  charges  against  the  vessel,  (2)  charges  against  the  cargo. 

The  charges  against  the  vessel  have  been  separated  into  (a) 
major  charges,  including  pilotage,  towage,  dockage,  loading  and  dis- 
charging, bunkering,  and  dunnage;  (b)  minor  group,  consisting  of 
harbor  master's  fees,  port  warden's  fees,  and  various  miscellaneous 
charges. 

The  charges  against  the  cargo  are  divided  into  (a)  those 
mainly  connected  with  water  operations,  including -wharf  age,  lighter- 
age, and  floatage,  and  (b)  charges  mainly  connected  with  shore 
operations,  comprising  elevating,  switching  and  belt-line  charges, 
and  storage. 

The  division  here  made  between  charges  against  the  vessel  and 
charges  against  the  cargo  is,  of  course,  not  strictly  accurate.  In  the 
last  analysis  all  charges  must  be  borne  by  the  cargo.  Stevedoring 
has  been  included  in  this  report  among  the  charges  levied  against  the 
vessel ;  it  might  as  well  have  been  included  in  charges  against  the 
cargo.  This  charge,  like  others  actually  paid  by  the  vessel,  must  be 
included  by  it  in  the  ocean  freight  rate  imposed  upon  the  cargo. 
Any  division  of  port  charges,  therefore,  is  more  for  convenience  in 
analysis  than  it  is  to  indicate  the  incidence  of  charges. 

In  attempting  this  study  of  port  terminal  charges,  it  has  been 
necessary  to  define  the  terms  to  be  used  in  the  hope  that  the  different 
practices  in  the  various  ports  might  not  result  in  confusion  in  the 
information  furnished. 

3  Taken  largely  from  C.  O.  Ruggles,  "Terminal  Charges  at  United  States 
Ports."  Report  to  United  States  Shipping  Board.  Government  Printing 
Office,  1919. 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS       n 

The  following  are  the  definitions  which  have  been  used  in  seeking 
information : 

Charges  against  the  Vessel — Major  Group. — "Pilotage" 
includes  all  charges  for  working  a  ship  into  and  out  of  a  harbor  and 
through  a  channel  or  passage ;  it  is  based  on  some  unit,  such  as  draft 
of  vessel  or  tonnage.  Pilotage  is  sometimes  commuted  into  a  term 
license. 

"Towage"  includes  all  charges  for  employment  of  tugs  or  tow- 
boats  for  assisting  vessels  into  and  out  of  the  harbor,  for  docking 
and  undocking,  and  for  moving  vessels  and  lighters  from  pier  to 
pier. 

"Dockage"  includes  all  charges  levied  against  vessels  for  the  use 
of  berthing  space,  whether  for  loading,  discharging,  repairs,  or  other 
reasons.  Use  of  berth  beyond  an  agreed  time  allowance  is  sometimes 
called  "penalty  dockage."  There  is  included  under  this  head  any 
charge  for  the  use  of  buoys. 

"Loading  and  discharging  cargo"  includes  stevedoring  and  all 
forms  of  mechanical  handling,  such  as  cranage,  and  any  miscella- 
neous charges  that  are  incurred  in  connection  with  the  transfer  of 
cargo  from  ship  to  pier,  or  pier  to  ship,  all  sorting  and  stacking  on 
the  wharf,  including  charges  for  stowing  and  trimming  on  vessel. 
Stevedore  labor  rates  also  are  included  under  this  heading. 

"Bunkering"  includes  all  charges  for  loading  coal  into  a  ship's 
bunkers  for  its  own  use,  exclusive  of  the  price  of  coal. 

"Dunnage"  covers  the  expense  of  preparing  a  ship  for  the  stow- 
age of  cargo.  It  includes  all  material  necessary  for  safe  and  efficient 
stowage,  such  as  boards,  coins  (extra  barrel  heads),  cordwood,  braces, 
and  ship-lap,  and  the  cost  of  installation. 

Minor  Group. — "Harbor  dues"  or  "harbor  master's  fees"  in- 
clude all  fees  imposed  by  the  port  to  cover  expenses  of  administra- 
tion. They  comprise  such  charges  as  those  imposed  for  indicating 
anchorage,  shifting  vessels,  clearing  wharf,  and  the  like. 

"Port  warden's  fees"  include  all  charges  for  surveys  held  on 
board  or  on  wharf  or  at  any  warehouse,  storage  of  cargo,  or  dam- 
aged goods;  for  surveys  of  hull,  sails,  spars,  and  rigging  of  any 
damaged  vessel;  or  for  valuation  or  measurement  of  vessel. 

"Miscellaneous  charges"  include  all  fees  and  charges  not  other- 
wise classified.  Illustration  of  such  fees  are  those  levied  for  the 
services  of  a  watchman,  or  a  tally  clerk,  weighing  and  measuring 
expenses,  running  lines  for  vessels,  furnishing  tarpaulins,  charges 
for  water  furnished,  lighthouse  fees,  brokerage  fees  for  entering 
goods  at  the  customs,  inspection  of  cargo,  fees  for  making  out  bills 


12  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

of  lading,  and  charges  for  various  shipping  documents,  and  ship 
brokerage  fees  when  vessel  is  in  the  chartered  freight  service.  Some- 
times these  fees  are  commuted  into  annual  payments. 

Charges  against  the  Cargo — Definition  of  Items  in  the  Ac- 
count.— "Wharfage"  includes  all  charges  against  freight  for  the  use 
of  wharves  for  freight  passing  over  the  wharf.  These  charges  are 
sometimes  called  "tolls."  Preferential  assignment  of  space  on  a  term 
basis  to  shipping  agents  is  included  under  wharfage,  but  this  should 
be  distinguished  from  lease  of  wharves  to  steamship  companies, 
which  should  be  included  under  dockage. 

"Lighterage"  includes  all  charges  for  the  transportation  of  goods 
by  lighter  in  a  harbor.  This  charge  usually  includes  the  loading 
into  and  discharging  out  of  lighters.  Charges  made  for  car  floats 
are  included  under  this  heading. 

"Elevating"  includes  charges  for  services  of  both  land  and 
floating  elevators. 

"Switching  and  belt-line  charges"  include  the  charge  made  by 
switching  or  belt-line  railways. 

"Storage"  includes  all  charges  for  freight  remaining  on  wharf 
beyond  a  specified  time ;  also  all  warehouse  and  other  charges  for 
temporary  safe-keeping,  including  bulk  storage  of  grain,  cotton,  and 
the  like.  These  charges  are  to  be  distinguished  from  demurrage, 
which  is  a  charge  applied  to  the  transportation  vehicle  rather  than 
to  the  cargo. 

Some  charges  of  importance,  dry-dockage,  demurrage,  and  dray- 
age  have  not  been  included  in  this  report.  Dry-dockage  is  made 
only  when  the  ship  is  in  a  dry-dock  for  repairs.  Demurrage  is  the 
charge  made  for  the  detention  of  a  vessel  beyond  an  agreed  number 
of  days  allowed  for  its  loading  or  discharging.  Obviously  this 
would  vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  ship,  the  demand  for  its 
service,  and  various  other  circumstances.  From  the  characteriza- 
tion of  these  charges  it  will  be  seen  that  a  vessel  might  enter  and 
clear  a  port  many  times  without  occasion  for  either  of  them  being 
paid.  Although  drayage  is  an  important  charge  in  some  ports,  it 
has  not  been  possible  to  secure  accurate  information  concerning  it. 
The  drayage  charge  of  significance  in  this  study  is  that  which  would 
obtain  for  cartage  between  piers,  between  piers  and  storage  ware- 
houses, between  piers  and  railway  terminals  and  vice  versa.  In  cases 
in  which  information  has  been  furnished  differentiation  has  not  been 
made  between  the  service  connected  with  the  coordination  of  rail  and 
water  carriers  and  that  of  local  deliveries. 

In  addition  to  the  Federal  regulation  of  quarantine,  there  are 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS       13 

certain  local  health  or  quarantine  fees  for  sanitary  inspection  and 
fumigation  services,  but  the  information  furnished  on  these  charges 
was  so  unsatisfactory  that  in  view  of  their  minor  importance  they 
have  been  omitted. 

Definitions  Vary  at  Different  Ports. — Examination  of  the  data 
in  Part  II  of  this  report  will  indicate  that  the  definitions  of  port 
charges  here  given  do  not  obtain  at  all  ports.  Indeed,  the  conspicu- 
ous  lack  of  any  standardization  of  terms  in  this  field  is  one  indication 
of  the  fact  that  port  charges  have  not  received  the  consideration  to 
which  they  are  entitled.  A  few  concrete  examples  will  indicate  the 
variety  of  usage  employed.  At  New  York  and  Philadelphia  the 
term  "dockage"  is  rarely  used.  Although  charges  are  made  against 
the  vessel  at  these  ports,  it  is  called  "wharfage."  As  has  been  seen, 
wharfage  has  been  defined  in  this  report  as  a  charge  against  the 
cargo.  Therefore,  what  is  usually  referred  to  in  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  as  wharfage  is  called  dockage  in  this  report.  At  San 
Francisco,  until  recently,  wharfage  was  used  to  designate  the  charge 
made  for  cargo  remaining  on  the  wharf  after  a  specified  time.  In 
an  amendment  to  the  harbor  rules,  regulations,  and  rates  of  that  port, 
effective  September  l,  1917,  the  board  of  State  harbor  commissioners 
substituted  the  term  "demurrage"  for  "wharfage."  At  Seattle  the 
charge  made  for  leaving  cargo  on  the  wharf  beyond  a  prescribed  time 
is  called  "wharf  demurrage";  at  New  Orleans  such  a  charge  is  in 
some  instances  called  demurrage.  This  is  confusing.  The  term 
demurrage  properly  applies  to  the  detention  of  a  ship  or  vehicle.  In 
this  report  the  charge  for  leaving  cargo  on  a  wharf  after  a  prescribed 
time  is  called  storage.  Possibly  a  new  term,  such  as  "penalty 
wharfage,"  should  be  given  to  this  charge,  to  distinguish  it  from 
storage  in  warehouses. 

Of  these  various  terminal  charges,  those  for  wharf  service  are 
especially  important  because  they  are  relatively  large  and  because 
they  "are  used  for  purposes  of  what  may  be  called  traffic  strategy 
or  port  strategy,  being  collected  as  a  separate  charge  for  a  special 
service,  or  absorbed  in  the  freight  rate,  or  waived,  as  the  exigencies 
of  the  port  or  the  owners  of  the  terminal  facilities,  especially  of  rail- 
road owners,  may  require." 

Difference  between  Dockage  and  Wharfage. — The  charges  for 
wharf  service  consist  of  "dockage"  and  "wharfage,"  which  Ruggles 
distinguishes  from  each  other  as  follows : 

Dockage  is  a  per  diem  charge  proportioned  to  the  space  occupied 


i4  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

by  the  ship  alongside  the  pier  or  wharf;  while  wharfage  is  propor- 
tioned to  the  quantity  of  goods  passing  over  the  wharf  to  or  from 
the  vessel.  Generally  speaking,  these  are  alternative  modes  of  pay- 
ment, the  owner  relying  on  one  form  or  the  other  for  his  revenue. 
It  is  not  usual  to  charge  the  vessel  for  occupying  a  berth  while  load- 
ing or  discharging  cargo  against  which  wharfage  is  charged.  Dock- 
age may  be  charged  against  such  a  vessel  for  occupying  the  berth  for 
an  unreasonable  length  of  time,  or  against  a  vessel  at  berth  for  any 
purpose  other  than  receiving  or  discharging  cargo.  This  is  the 
common  practice,  but  in  some  cases,  especially  in  ports  where  termi- 
nals are  publicly  owned  and  publicly  operated,  both  charges,  and 
indeed  some  additional  charges,  are  collected. 

Difference  in  Application  of  Charges. — The  difference  in  methods 
of  applying  these  charges  may  be  shown  by  comparing  the  practice 
at  New  Orleans  with  that  at  New  York. 

At  New  Orleans  the  wharves  owned  and  operated  by  the  public 
are  the  ones  chiefly  used  by  vessels  engaged  in  foreign  and  coastwise 
trade.  The  total  gross  tonnage  of  the  ocean  vessels  docking  at  the 
public  wharves  in  1916  was  4,510,000  out  of  a  total  of  5,792,000 
arriving  at  the  port.  The  State  secures  its  wharf  revenue  from  five 
forms  of  charge:  (l)  from  dockage,  based  on  gross  tonnage  and 
the  length  of  time  the  berth  is  occupied,  imposed  on  all  seagoing 
vessels ;  (2)  from  wharfage,  locally  called  tollage  or  tolls,  imposed 
since  November,  1915,  but  not  before,  on  all  foreign  and  coastwise 
traffic  at  a  flat  rate  of  5  cents  per  ton  of  2,OOO  pounds;  (3)  from 
sheddage,  a  charge  for  the  use  of  piers  provided  with  sheds,  at  the 
rate  of  \y2  cents  per  gross  registered  ton  for  the  first  21  days  and 
Y^  cent  for  the  next  3  days.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  this  is 
essentially  a  dockage  charge  for  the  use  of  a  particular  kind  of 
wharf.  (4)  A  fourth  form  of  charge  is  made  for  preferential  assign- 
ments of  wharves  to  water  carriers  for  which  "assignment  rental" 
is  collected  at  the  rate  of  3  cents  per  square  foot  per  annum  for  wharf 
space  occupied.  As  the  charge  indicates,  it  entitles  the  ship  only  to  a 
preferential  use,  not  to  absolute  control  of  the  wharf  or  part  thereof 
assigned.  This  charge  is  also  of  the  nature  of  a  dockage  charge,  but 
is  not  in  lieu  of  it  or  of  any  other  charge.  (5)  Still  another  form 
of  charge  is  the  license,  levied  against  river  craft  of  various  kinds. 
It  is  graded  according  to  the  size  and  character  of  vessel  and  ranges 
from  $36  to  $120  per  year. 

Pier  Rent. — At  New  York  the  revenue  of  the  public  wharves  is 
derived  from  "rent"  and  from  "wharfage"  (properly  "dockage"), 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS        15 

rent  making  up  by  far  the  larger  amount.  When  the  city  rents  a 
pier  it  surrenders  all  right  to  make  any  charges  other  than  the 
rent  itself,  and  thus  there  is  a  sharp  contrast  to  the  situation  at  New 
Orleans.  The  lessee  may  make  any  charges  that  he  prefers,  and  in 
almost  all  cases  the  charge  is  a  dockage  charge  proportioned  to  ton- 
nage and  time  at  berth. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  one  illustration  that  it  is  difficult  to  com- 
pare wharf  charges.  The  problem  is  further  complicated  by  the 
practice  at  piers  owned  and  operated  by  railroads. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  railroads  do  not  make  a  dock- 
age charge  against  a  vessel  while  it  is  loading  or  discharging  cargo 
subject  to  wharfage.  The  railroad  terminal  tariffs  have  a  much 
larger  number  of  specific  commodity  rates  than  is  usual  at  public 
piers,  and  what  is  more  confusing,  the  wharfage  charge  is  usually 
combined  with  a  handling  or  a  storage  charge  and  often  with  both. 
But  the  greatest  confusion  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  charge  is 
collected  as  against  some  traffic  and  is  waived  with  respect  to 
other  traffic.  This  applies  to  wharfage,  the  charge  against  the  cargo 
rather  than  to  dockage.  Without  attempting  to  go  into  the  history 
of  the  railroad  practice  of  absorbing  the  wharfage  charge  it  may 
be  said  that  it  has  been  adopted  in  part  to  protect  the  business  of 
the  port  and  in  part  to  protect  the  traffic  of  the  roads.  The  longer  the 
haul  a  road  has  the  better  able  it  is  to  treat  the  terminal  as  part  of 
the  railroad  and  make  no  separate  charge  for  its  use,  and  the  more 
likely  it  is,  therefore,  to  absorb  the  wharfage.  At  Boston,  the  roads 
will  absorb  a  rather  high  wharfage  charge  in  a  switching  rate.  At 
Baltimore  the  Pennsylvania  absorbs  it  if  it  gets  a  line  haul,  while 
the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  does  so  only  when  it  earns  a  line-haul  revenue 
of  a  stipulated,  though  small,  amount.  At  New  York  and  Philadel- 
phia there  is  no  wharfage  charge  at  the  railroad  piers,  though  in  the 
case  of  New  York  vessels  rarely  dock  at  the  railroad  piers.  At  New 
York  vessels  are  subject  to  heavy  dockage  or  rentals  at  the  city  piers 
on  the  Manhattan  side. 

Competition  between  the  rail  carriers  is  another  factor  determin- 
ing whether  a  separate  charge  is  made  against  traffic  using  a  railroad 
water  terminal.  The  method  of  absorption  employed  generally  at 
the  South  Atlantic  ports  and  at  Mobile  illustrates  the  effect  on  rail- 
road policy,  both  of  competition  and  of  distance.  Traffic  from  be- 
yond a  certain  defined  territory,  roughly,  south  of  the  Ohio  and  east 
of  the  Mississippi,  pays  no  wharfage,  while  traffic  originating  at  or 


16  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

destined  to  points  within  that  territory  does  pay  it,  unless  such 
points  are  competitive.  The  Galveston  Bay  roads  absorb  wharfage 
at  Galveston  and  Texas  City  on  all  commodities,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions of  traffic  originating  at  or  destined  to  points  outside  of  Texas, 
while  Texas  traffic  pays  the  charge  in  addition  to  the  rail  rate.  The 
rule  at  Seattle  is  constructed  on  the  same  general  plan,  but  it  in- 
troduces another  condition — the  origin  or  destination  of  traffic  at 
the  water  end  of  the  movement. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  railroads  also  absorb  the 
wharfage  charge  against  traffic  passing  over  public  piers  as  well 
as  their  own.  When  in  1915  New  Orleans  was  in  need  of  more 
revenue  from  its  wharves  it  left  untouched  its  old  charges  against 
the  vessel  and  added  a  low  flat  rate  on  freight,  fully  expecting  that 
the  railroads  would  absorb  it,  and  this  the  railroads  promptly  did. 
The  transcontinental  lines  follow  a  general  policy  of  absorbing  the 
California  State  "tolls"  or  wharfage,  though  they  do  not  absorb  on 
all  traffic.  At  the  present  time  (December,  1918)  the  proposal  is 
being  discussed  at  San  Francisco  to  reduce  greatly,  if  not  to  elimi- 
nate, all  charges  against  vessels  in  the  hope  of  attracting  more  vessels 
to  the  port,  and  to  make  good  the  loss  of  revenue  by  increasing  the 
wharfage  charge  with  the  expectation,  no  doubt,  that  the  railroads 
will  absorb  it,  thus  giving  San  Francisco  what  would  amount  to  a 
lower  railroad  rate. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  outcome  of  this  policy  of  absorbing 
the  wharfage  on  some  traffic  and  not  on  other  is  to  introduce  an 
element  of  discrimination  in  the  interest  of  the  carrier  or  of  the 
port,  and  to  render  it  well-nigh  impossible  accurately  to  compare 
the  charge  either  as  a  measure  of  service  or  as  a  burden  of 
commerce. 

Although  it  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  compare  wharf  charges, 
there  are  available  several  publications  which  can  be  used  to  obtain 
the  charge  made  at  any  one  port.  The  points  that  we  want  to  make 
here  are  that  these  charges  are  relatively  large  and  that  they  vary 
between  wide  limits.  Since  they  vary,  it  is  possible  for  the  shipowner 
to  make  large  economies  by  studying  the  situation  carefully  and  using 
those  wharves  or  ports  at  which  he  can  obtain  the  most  favorable 
rates.  Since  they  are  large  and  are  generally  based  on  time  at 
berth,  it  is  essential  that  the  time  of  the  vessel  in  port  be  reduced  to 
the  lowest  possible  minimum.  Methods  of  reducing  this  time  will  be 
considered  later. 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS       17 

COST  OF  STEVEDORING 

The  actual  cost  of  handling  cargo  varies  with  a  great  many 
factors,  the  most  important  being  the  harbor  facilities,  the  kind  of 
cargo,  the  type  of  vessel,  and  the  wages  and  efficiency  of  the  long- 
shoremen. The  cost  is  relatively  low  if  the  harbor  and  transfer 
equipment  is  adequate,  if  the  cargo  can  be  handled  in  bulk,  and  if  the 
wages  are  low ;  and  it  is  high  if  the  cargo  must  be  handled  by  many 
highly  paid  and  inefficient  laborers  at  a  port  not  equipped  with 
modern  conveniences. 

Even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  the  cost  of  stevedoring 
is  large  as  compared  with  other  direct  operating  expenses  of  the 
vessel.  From  the  few  studies  that  have  been  made  on  this  subject 
it  would  appear  that  stevedoring  accounts  for  25  to  35  per  cent  of 
the  total  direct  operating  expenses,  which  include  wages,  fuel,  repairs 
and  maintenance,  port  charges,  agency  fees,  subsistence,  stores  and 
supplies,  management,  loading  and  discharging,  but  do  not  include 
insurance,  interest,  and  depreciation. 

It  is  a  common  saying  that  it  costs  more  to  move  a  barrel 
of  oil  over  a  New  York  pier  and  place  it  in  a  vessel  than  it  does 
to  carry  the  barrel  from  New  York  to  London,  and  yet  some  people 
argue  that  New  York  is  one  of  the  best  equipped  ports  in  the 
world.  Under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions — sometimes  encoun- 
tered at  the  largest  ports,  such  as  at  New  York — the  cost  of  handling 
cargo  becomes  enormous. 

Conditions  differ  so  greatly  that  it  is  imp  ^ssible  to  make  any 
general  statement  showing  the  costs  to  be  expected.  Nor  are  there 
available  figures  to  show  the  cost  of  handling  even  one  type  of 
cargo  at  different  ports  of  the  world,  although  shipping  and  port 
guides  give  some  indication  of  the  stevedore  rates.  We  can,  how- 
ever, choose  some  illustrations  to  indicate  the  general  trend  of  costs 
in  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 

Stevedore  Rates  at  Philadelphia. — The  statement  following 
gives  the  contract  stevedore  rates  of  Murphy,  Cook  &  Company, 
one  of  the  largest  stevedoring  firms  in  Philadelphia.  Most  of  the 
important  commodities  handled  by  this  firm,  with  the  rate  on  each, 
are  listed.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  rate  on  general  cargo  is  the  same 
for  both  loading  and  discharging  ($1.10  per  ton,  weight  or  measure- 
ment). It  would  seem  perhaps  that  the  cost  of  loading  would  be 


18 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


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WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS      19 


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20 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


NOTE. — The  foregoing  rates  are  based  on  the  usual  custom  of  Phil- 
adelphia delivery,  and  any  expenses  incurred  for  trucking,  piling  cargo, 
etc.,  on  the  dock  to  be  paid  for  by  the  ship.  (Over  six  (6)  men  to  each 
gang  on  the  dock.) 

In  event  of  our  discharging  or  loading  any  vessels  at  lower  rates  than 
those  named,  we  agree  to  give  you  the  benefit  of  such  reduction,  and  in 
case  of  increased  cost  of  labor,  owners  to  pay  such  increase. 

We  agree  to  give  the  ships  the  best  possible  dispatch  and  attention. 
Cargo  in  peaks,  bridges,  tanks,  poops,  lazarets,  by  day's  work. 

We  are  covered  by  insurance  against  accidents  which  may  occur  to 
our  men  while  employed  by  us  to  comply  with  the  Workmen's  Com- 
pensation Act,  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  for  which  an  additional  five 
per  cent  will  be  charged. 

Steamships  to  furnish  all  necessary  steam,  winches,  runners,  and 
slings  for  working  the  cargo.  The  stevedores  furnishing  the  men  to 
work  at  the  winches,  the  ship  paying  the  prevailing  rates  for  the  com- 
modity handled  for  each  man  so  furnished.  Should  steamers'  winches 
not  be  available,  owners  to  pay  the  cost  of  hoisting  charges. 

Should  men  be  employed  by  the  ship  to  assist  in  any  work,  such  men 
to  be  paid  the  prevailing  rates  for  the  commodities  handled. 

LABOR  RATES 


Day  Work 
per  hour 

Overtime 
per  hour 

Meal  Hour 
per  hour 

Overtime 
per  hour 

Meal  Hour 
per  hour 

General  cargo  . 
Foremen  —  do  .  . 
Oil  —  in  city  .  .  . 
Foremen  —  do  .  . 
Grain  

$  .85 
1-35 
1.  00 

1.50 

.QS 

$1.30 
2.05 
1.50 
2.25 

1.  4.0 

$1.70 
2.70 
2.OO 

3-00 

I.QO 

$  .50 
.70 
-55 
•75 
.50 

$  .85 
1-35 

1.  00 

1.50 
.QS 

Foremen  —  do  .  . 

145 

2.15 

2.90 

.70 

143 

Oil — Point  Breeze  and  Gibson  s  Point 
$11.50  per  day  or  one-half  day. 
$15.50  per  day  or  one-half  day  or  night  or  one-half  night  overtime. 

$2.30  per  hour  meal  hour. 
Foremen 

$15.00  per  day  or  one-half  day. 

$22.50  per  day  or  one-half  day  or  night  or  one-half  night  overtime. 
$3.00  per  hour  meal  hour. 
Explosives 

$12.50  per  day  or  one-half  day. 

$16.00  per  day  or  one-half  day  or  night  or  one-half  night  overtime. 
$2.50  per  hour  meal  hour. 

Overtime,  $1.00  per  hour;  $2.50  per  hour  meal  hour. 
Foremen 

$18.00  per  day  or  one-half  day. 

$25.00  per  day  or  one-half  day  or  night  or  one-half  night  overtime. 
$3.60  per  hour  meal  hour. 

Overtime,  $1.50  per  hour;  $3.50  per  hour  meal  hour. 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS      21 

The  basic  day  is  from  8  A.  M.  till  5  P.  M.  (8  hours).  All  other  time  is 
OVERTIME,  and  the  rate  for  all  labor  for  overtime  is  governed  by  the 
National  Adjustment  Commission. 

This  agreement  to  commence  on ,  and  to  remain  in  force  until 

,  19—. 

MURPHY,  COOK  &  Co. 
Witness: 


We  hereby  accept  the  above  offer  of  Messrs.  MURPHY,  COOK  & 
COMPANY,  to  do  the  stevedoring  work  (except  when  bound  by  charter) 
of  all  steamers  under  our  management,  and  subject  to  all  conditions 
named  in  this  contract. 

Witness: 


Dated  at ,  this day  of ,  19 — . 

the  larger  because  it  involves  stowing  in  the  hold.  Perhaps  the 
stevedore  does  make  a  larger  profit  on  the  unloading,  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  breaking  out  of  cargo  is  almost  as  difficult  as  the 
stowing,  particularly  as  the  goods  must  be  raised. 

The  rates  vary  between  wide  limits,  according  to  the  character  of 
the  cargo.  The  lowest  loading  rate  ($1.10  per  ton)  is  given  to  those 
articles  most  easily  handled  because  of  their  method  of  packing, 
including  bagged  materials,  meats,  oil  cake,  general  cargo,  and  case 
oil.  The  highest  rates  are  on  those  that  are  very  dangerous  (dyna- 
mite, $5.02  per  ton)  and  those  that  require  special  machinery  and  a 
large  number  of  men  (locomotives  $4.80  per  ton).  The  lowest  dis- 
charging rates  are  quoted  on  East  Indian  cargoes,  ore,  china  clay, 
and  chalk.  The  East  Indian  cargoes  consist  of  goods  that  can  be 
easily  and  roughly  handled,  while  ore,  china  clay,  and  chalk  can 
be  discharged  into  lighters  by  use  of  clamshell  buckets.  The  highest 
rate  is  on  steel  or  iron  scrap,  the  discharge  of  which  requires  many 
men  and  may  require  special  equipment. 

In  almost  all  cases  these  rates  must  be  considerably  increased 
to  cover  the  "extras,"  or  charges  for  extra  labor  and  equipment, 
which  may  amount  to  a  large  percentage  of  the  total  bill.  But.  on 
the  other  hand,  the  rates  include  a  profit  for  the  stevedore  and  are 
higher  than  the  actual  cost.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  cost 
of  the  same  operations  to  a  steamship  company  doing  its  own  steve- 
doring is  not  greatly  different. 


22  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Satisfactory  Statistics  Lacking. — Satisfactory  statistics  on  the 
subject  of  stevedoring  costs  are  lacking,  even  for  the  port  of  New 
York,  to  which  so  much  attention  has  been  paid,  although  the  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  Harbors  Facilities  Commission  has  made  an 
investigation  of  this  matter  which  became  available  in  April,  1921. 

Shipping  Board  Calculations. — Perhaps  the  best  study  is  that 
made  by  the  Ports  Facilities  Commission  of  the  United  States  Ship- 
ping Board,  shown  in  the  table  on  the  following  page.  The  cost 
is  made  up  of  four  items :  stevedoring,  tallying  and  clerking,  watch- 
ing, and  dunnage,  and  is  shown  for  two  periods — the  fall  of  1913 
and  the  fall  of  1918. 

Most  of  the  vessels  carried  general  cargo.  The  striking  disclo- 
sures made  by  this  table  are:  (i)  the  high  cost  of  loading  in  1918, 
(2)  the  large  increase  in  costs  since  1913,  and  (3)  the  difference  of 
56.7  cents  between  the  average  costs  of  loading  and  unloading  in 
1918.  If  the  figures  show  the  true  conditions,  as  they  were  designed 
to  do,  the  cost  of  loading  in  New  York  in  1918  was  more  than  $1 
greater  than  the  contract  stevedore  prices  in  Philadelphia  a  year 
later,  after  further  increases  in  longshoremen's  wages.  The  cost  was 
less  on  the  average  for  coastwise  vessels  than  for  deep-sea  vessels, 
and  there  were  large  differences  between  the  costs  of  different 
companies. 

The  fact  that  the  cost  of  unloading  was  considerably  less  than 
the  loading  cost  in  1918,  although  the  two  were  almost  equal  in 
1913,  is  to  be  partly  explained  by  the  smaller  percentage  of  general 
cargo  vessels  to  be  unloaded  in  1918.  But  it  is  probably  true  that 
unloading  costs  at  most  modern  ports  and  with  most  cargoes  are 
less  than  loading  costs. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  on  page  65  that  the  wages  of 
longshoremen  in  the  period,  August,  1918,  to  January  l,  1919,  at 
which  time  this  study  was  made,  were  50  cents  and  65  cents  an  hour, 
whereas  in  January,  1920,  they  were  80  cents  an  hour.  The  investi- 
gation therefore  falls  far  short  of  representing  the  cost  of  stevedoring 
in  New  York  at  the  present  time.  The  costs  at  other  ports,  even 
for  1918,  are  not  available,  but  some  hint  of  them  is  contained  in 
the  level  of  longshoremen's  wages,  shown  in  the  table  referred  to 
above. 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS      23 


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24  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

METHODS  OF  REDUCING  TERMINAL  COSTS  AND  TFME  IN  PORT 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  a  saving  of  several  thousand  dollars 
can  be  made  in  port  overhead  expenses  for  each  day  eliminated  from 
the  time  spent  in  port  and  that  wharf  charges  can  be  reduced 
several  hundred  dollars  for  each  day  eliminated.  The  economies 
resulting  from  faster  stevedoring  are  not  so  apparent,  but  unques- 
tionably quicker  stevedoring  means  cheaper  stevedoring,  except  in 
those  cases  where  speed  is  made  by  working  overtime  at  higher 
costs.  If  greater  speed  is  the  result  of  mechanical  appliances  or 
more  efficient  work,  the  total  cost  is  lowered.  These  three  major 
items  in  port  expense  depend,  therefore,  upon  the  time  in  port,  and 
it  becomes  necessary  to  inquire  into  the  means  that  may  be  taken  to 
reduce  this  time.  Some  of  the  means  will  be  considered  in  more 
detail  in  future  chapters,  especially  in  those  on  transfer,  but  it  is 
best  to  summarize  them  here. 

If  the  shipowner  can  secure  from  these  suggestions  a  hint  that 
will  enable  him  to  eliminate  one  day  in  port,  this  book  will  have 
served  its  purpose.  The  lowest  freight  rates  in  the  world  are  those 
of  the  Great  Lakes,  where  time  in  port  has  been  reduced  to  such  a 
point  that  the  vessels  can  make  large  earnings  in  spite  of  high  wages, 
low  freight  rates,  and  an  eight  months'  operating  season.  If  the 
deep-sea  American  merchant  marine  is  to  prosper  in  similar  fashion, 
the  turn-around  of  the  individual  vessels  must  de  decreased.  De- 
crease will  not  come  immediately  as  a  result  of  greater  speed  of  the 
vessel,  for  that  involves  increased  costs,  but  it  must  come  as  a  result 
of  the  elimination  of  some  of  the  time  in  port.  In  September,  1919, 
the  average  time  spent  by  the  United  States  Shipping  Board  vessels 
in  London  was  40.4  days,  and  this  had  been  reduced  to  29.6  days  in 
November,  partly  as  a  result  of  the  activity  of  the  Board's  agents.  A 
reduction  of  over  10  days  in  port  time  cannot  be  expected  in  many 
instances,  but  smaller  reductions  can  be  made  by  the  adoption  on 
the  part  of  the  several  interested  agencies  of  one  or  more  of  the 
following  suggestions : 

Quick  dispatch  is  attained  by  maximum  speed  in  loading  and  dis- 
charging. Obvious  as  this  may  sound,  there  is  a  great  deal  to  it, 
because  the  actual  loading  or  unloading  of  the  vessel  is  concerned 
with  processes  very  remote  from  the  ship's  side.  There  are  many 
factors  involved  in  addition  to  the  mere  speed  of  the  hook  between 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS      25 

hatch  and  wharf.  Some  of  the  factors  of  rapid  loading  and  discharg- 
ing should  be  carefully  considered. 

Formulation  of  the  loading  plan  well  in  advance  is  the  foundation 
for  quick  dispatch.  If  the  larger  part  of  the  freight  to  go  into  the 
vessel  has  been  booked  and  the  distribution  of  the  same  in  the  ship 
carefully  calculated  well  in  advance  of  the  time  when  the  ship  is 
to  load,  it  is  possible  to  feed  the  cargo  into  the  ship  in  a  steady 
stream  in  the  order  in  which  it  should  come.  If  cargo  can  move 
quickly  without  interference  and  without  congestion  on  the  pier  or 
in  the  hold  there  will  be  saved  all  those  vexatious  delays  due  either 
to  congestion  or  to  the  failure  of  the  goods  to  arrive  OH  time. 

Prompt  delivery  is  important  in  loading  or  unloading  the  vessel. 
Prompt  delivery  while  loading  is  necessary  to  avoid  delays.  As  the 
size  of  ships  has  grown  much  more  rapidly  than  the  wharf  capaci- 
ties, it  is  essential  that  delivery  be  taken  of  cargo  discharged  from  the 
ship  as  promptly  as  possible  in  order  to  remove  the  same  from  the 
wharves  and  not  to  congest  the  wharf  area  for  the  further  discharge 
of  freight  from  the  vessel.  Rapid  transfer  is  dependent  very  largely 
upon  the  dispatch  with  which  freight  arrives  or  is  taken  away. 

Adequate  machinery  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Probably 
more  attention  is  given  to  this  subject  than  to  any  phase  of  port 
development.  The  contestants  in  favor  of  the  ship  winch  and 
cargo  masts  as  against  the  adherents  of  the  electric  crane  are  con- 
stantly before  the  public  with  their  various  arguments.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  two,  so  long  as  the  movement  is  positive  and  rapid — 
positive  because  it  handles  the  draft  with  dispatch,  and  rapid  be- 
cause of  the  maximum  frequency  of  the  cycles  possible — still  leaves 
considerable  room  for  discussion  as  to  the  relative  merits.  The 
question  of  transfer  machinery  undoubtedly  is  important.  There  is 
much  room  for  improvement  and  for  new  designs,  particularly 
special  designs  for  the  continuous  motion  of  handling  freight  of  a 
uniform  size  and  weight.  However,  the  main  delays  occur  some 
distance  away  from  the  picking-up  point.  Nevertheless,  in  the 
case  of  large  packages  weighing  more  than  a  ton  each,  adequate 
derricks  either  on  the  wharf  or  afloat  are  absolutely  essential  to 
quick  dispatch.  For  instance,  at  Baltimore  at  the  beginning  of  the 
World  War,  it  took  more  than  an  hour  to  load  a  crated  army  truck 
from  the  wharf  side.  After  the  institution  of  a  lighterage  and  float- 
ing derrick  system,  with  a  derrick  sufficiently  powerful  to  lift  easily 


26  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

a  crated  6-ton  truck,  the  loading  time  for  these  trucks  was  reduced 
to  less  than  fifteen  minutes.  Even  such  a  large  package  as  a  loco- 
motive completely  assembled  can  be  handled  with  comparative  ease 
with  the  proper  machinery. 

Avoiding  congestion  is  more  important  than  the  relative  differ- 
ence in  machinery,  as  various  types  of  transfer  machinery  have  been 
well  developed  to  date.  Congestion  in  and  about  our  ports  from 
the  area  immediately  about  the  ship,  both  wharf  and  slip,  and  into 
the  classification  yards  of  the  railroads  is  the  main  cause  of  delay, 
high  cost  of  loading,  and  of  slow  turn-around.  There  are  numerous 
points  where  this  congestion  can  be  avoided  and  must  be  avoided 
in  our  future  port  development  if  our  merchant  marine  is  to  prosper. 

Avoiding  congestion  at  the  pic  king-up  point  or  deposit  point  oppo- 
site the  ship's  hatchway  is  important.  If  in  discharging  a  vessel  a 
draft  must  "hang"  because  the  draft  preceding  it  has  not  been  re- 
moved from  the  point  of  deposit,  this  time  is  lost.  One  of  the  first 
rules  in  handling  cargo  is  not  to  let  the  draft  hang.  In  order  to 
avoid  this  it  is  necessary  to  have  as  large  a  point  of  deposit  as  possi- 
ble. One  advantage  of  the  crane  over  the  cargo  mast  and  tackle  is 
the  greater  area  on  which  goods  may  be  set  down  upon  the  wharf. 

The  size  of  the  wharf  deck  is  of  even  greater  importance.  Much 
of  the  congestion  at  New  York  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  piers 
were  built  for  small  ships  many  years  ago.  The  large  ships  of 
to-day  can  discharge  upon  the  average  old  pier  far  more  cargo  than 
it  can  hold,  even  if  the  goods  are  tiered  to  its  shed  roof-stringers. 
Obviously,  when  the  cargo  is  being  worked  and  delivery  is  being 
made,  either  to  the  ship  or  to  the  consignee,  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
pile  to  full  height  and  to  leave  only  a  few  aisles.  There  are  so 
many  different  marks  that  the  goods  will  become  mixed  unless  there 
is  a  sufficient  area  to  pile  consignments  separately  and  to  leave  large 
aisles  between  the  piles.  If  the  aisle  space  is  encroached  upon  there 
is  insufficient  room  for  the  longshoremen  to  work;  every  one  inter- 
feres with  every  one  else,  and  the  piled  goods  and  the  goods  on  the 
hand  trucks  are  constantly  in  collision.  Future  wharves  must  have 
a  very  much  greater  area — several  times  the  area  of  the  average  New 
York  pier.  In  getting  along  with  what  limited  wharf  space  we  have, 
careful  planning  to  secure  prompt  delivery  of  goods  as  wanted  for 
stowing  is  necessary. 

Working  all  the  hatches  is  essential   to  quick  dispatch.     This 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS      27 

again  is  dependent  upon  adequate  machinery  and  adequate  deck 
area  of  the  wharf.  With  all  four  or  five  hatches  being  loaded  simul- 
taneously the  confusion  on  the  wharf  is  increased.  Unless  there  is 
plenty  of  room  and,  in  addition,  adequate  machinery  for  handling, 
tiering,  trucking,  etc.,  it  is  an  extremely  difficult  matter  to  keep  all 
hatches  busy,  and  costly  delays  constantly  occur. 

Both  sides  of  the  ship  should  be  worked,  wherever  possible,  at 
the  same  time.  In  particular,  the  small  packages  should  be  coming 
aboard  from  the  wharf  side,  while  lighters  should  be  loading  the 
heavy  packages  and  such  consignments  as  grain  in  bulk  and  coal 
from  the  water  side.  If  "breasted  off,"  the  ship  can  be  bunkered  from 
both  sides  at  the  same  time. 

The  design  of  the  wharf  and  its  proper  relation  to  rails,  drays, 
warehouses,  lighters,  etc.,  is  necessary  to  the  intensive  working  of 
the  ship.  From  what  has  been  said  it  is  obvious  that  a  modern  wharf 
must  be  designed  with  a  very  much  greater  area  than  we  have  been 
accustomed  to  in  the  past.  At  the  same  time,  with  the  growth  of 
ships,  particularly  their  increased  beam,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the 
water  area  alongside  the  wharf  more  ample.  This  is  especially  true 
at  New  York,  where  the  slips  between  the  piers  are  as  narrow  in  pro- 
portion as  the  piers  themselves  and  similarly  congested.  This 
design  at  New  York  is  due  not  to  desirability  of  the  plan,  but  to 
the  fact  that  the  city  had  riparian  rights  to  land  under  water  and 
to  the  water  front  at  the  ends  of  the  streets.  Therefore,  the  piers 
correspond  in  width  to  the  width  of  the  streets  and  the  slips  to  the 
width  of  the  city  blocks.  When  people  to-day  declare  that  the  New 
York  piers  are  properly  designed  and  new  piers  should  be  built  like 
them  it  only  goes  to  prove  that  man  is  far  more  a  creature  of  habit 
than  of  imagination.  New  York  piers  never  were  designed  for 
efficiency.  They  were  built  to  fit  certain  legal  and  physical  condi- 
tions. With  the  growth  in  the  size  of  the  steamer  and  the  growth 
in  the  size  of  the  lighter  that  is  serving  the  steamer  from  the  water 
side,  the  slips  to-day  are  hopelessly  congested.  This  congestion  in 
many  cases  reduces  the  capacity  of  each  slip  from  two  vessels  to  one, 
it  being  impossible  to  load  vessels  at  both  sides  of  the  slip.  There- 
fore, ample  room  for  the  lighters  in  the  slip  is  just  as  important  as 
ample  deck  room  on  the  wharf  or  pier.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  deck  area,  either  single-floor  or  double-deck  tier,  should  be-sequal 
to  ten  times  the  number  of  square  feet  of  cargo  capacity  of  the 


28  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

largest  vessel  using  that  wharf.4  Likewise,  the  width  of  the  slip 
should  be  four  times  the  beam  of  the  largest  vessel  using  the  slip. 
Where  these  conditions  are  not  found  the  wharf  superintendent  and 
his  staff  are  hard  put  to  overcome  the  difficulty. 

In  addition  to  the  wharf  design  as  to  area  and  to  its  ability  to 
stand  up  and  carry  the  load  put  upon  it,  there  are  other  factors 
affecting  the  degree  of  congestion.  Wherever  there  is  a  harbor-belt 
railway  connecting  with  the  main  trunk  lines  using  the  wharf,  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  the  freight  cars  to  be  brought  within  con- 
venient distance  from  the  ship.  At  the  port  of  New  York  no  such 
lines  exist,  and  railroad  cars  are  not  brought  alongside  the  wharf  to 
load  the  ship.  Their  contents  are  unloaded,  put  upon  lighters,  and 
towed  to  the  pier  or  the  ship.  The  narrow  piers  receive  a  lighter 
on  one  side  to  unload  on  to  the  wharf.  In  all  cases  where  the  freight 
is  not  loaded  overside  from  lighters  it  is  trucked  across  the  pier  and 
loaded  into  the  ship.  So,  at  least,  is  the  theoretical  system  of 
lighters  and  narrow  piers.  It  must  be  remembered  also  that  only  a 
portion  of  the  freight  can  be  loaded  directly  from  lighters  into  the 
hold.  Freight  should  be  spread  out  and  sorted  in  order  to  be  loaded 
properly  and,  to  a  large  measure,  should  also  be  assembled  in  advance 
of  the  loading  of  the  vessel. 

Warehouses  in  their  relation  to  the  wharf  have  undergone  an 
evolution  in  the  United  States  in  the  last  two  or  three  years.  A 
great  deal  of  the  congestion  on  the  wharf  can  be  avoided  by  plan- 
ning the  warehouses  within  electric  trailer-truck  service  distance. 
This  has  been  well  accomplished  at  the  new  quartermasters'  supply 
bases  at  several  of  our  ports.  By  being  able  to  hold  freight  in  ware- 
houses adjacent  to  the  piers,  it  is  possible  to  clear  the  piers  almost 
immediately,  or  to  marshal  the  cargo  and  bring  it  to  the  ship's  side 
in  a  regular  and  steady  flow  according  to  the  cargo  plan. 

Skilled  personnel  is  of  the  greatest  possible  importance  in  all  of 
this  work.  This  includes  skilled  personnel  from  the  pier  superin- 
tendent to  the  longshoremen.  The  skill  of  all  of  these  persons 
requires  practice  and  experience ;  it  also  requires  close  study.  Unless 
an  individual  has  great  ability  and  a  type  of  mind  that  will  cause 
him  to  work  things  out  for  himself,  experience  and  practice  alone 
will  not  make  of  him  a  chief  stevedore  or  a  wharf  superintendent. 

*R.  S.  MacElwee,  Ports  and  Terminal  Facilities.  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Co.,  1918. 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS      29 

The  successful  man  is  the  one  who  knows  more  than  the  mere  rou- 
tine of  his  vocation.  He  must  know  the  reasons  for  his  duties  and 
their  relation  to  the  whole.  Then,  with  imagination  he  can  make 
constructive  suggestions  and  direct  others.  It  is  a  very  difficult 
task  with  which  we  are  confronted  in  this  volume.  The  prime 
object  is  to  bring  between  two  covers  the  best  experience  of  many 
others  in  such  a  form  that  the  years  of  apprenticeship  necessary  to 
acquire  skill  and  experience  may  be  shortened  and  methods  of  thought 
upon  the  prime  reasons  for  doing  things  may  be  developed  in  the 
ambitious  young  wharfinger.  Only  through  training  a  personnel, 
skilled  in  understanding  the  problems  involved  and  in  ability  to 
carry  on,  can  we  hope  to  make  our  American  merchant  marine  a 
financially  profitable  business  enterprise.  Unless  it  is,  its  failure  is 
unavoidable. 

INCREASED  PROFITS  BY  SKILLFUL  STOWING 

Loading  to  Maximum  Capacity. — To  make  the  greatest 
profits  during  a  voyage  a  ship  must  be  loaded  "full  and  down  to  her 
marks."  The  vessel  must  carry  both  her  maximum  dead-weight 
capacity  and  her  maximum  cubic  capacity.  If  a  ship  is  loaded 
entirely  with  pig  iron  it  will  be  lowered  to  its  marks  and  still  will  be 
partly  empty.  If  it  be  loaded  with  cotton,  it  will  be  full,  but  will 
be  high  out  of  the  water.  As  most  freight  contracts  read  that  freight 
is  paid  "by  weight  or  measure  at  ship's  option,"  one  will  see  that  the 
company  is  charging  a  certain  price  per  ton  by  weight  if  the  goods 
are  heavy,  and  a  certain  amount  per  40  cubic  feet,  that  is,  by  meas- 
urement, if  the  goods  are  light.  Loading  to  maximum  weight  and 
volume,  therefore,  is  an  important  factor.  Of  course,  the  chief 
stevedore  must  take  his  freight  as  it  comes.  It  is  much  easier  for 
him  to  load  four  vessels  at  one  time  than  to  load  one,  because  he  has 
a  greater  choice  in  the  shifting  of  his  cargo  according  to  its  nature. 
However,  through  cooperation  between  the  men  on  the  wharf  and 
the  freight  agent  who  books  the  cargo,  and  through  planning  the 
enfreightment  in  advance,  a  great  deal  may  be  done  "to  have  her 
full  and  down  to  her  marks." 

Kinds  of  Tonnage. — The  various  types  of  tonnage  must  be 
clearly  in  mind,  and  they  may  be  reviewed  here  as  an  aid  to  further 
progress  in  this  volume.  The  measurement  cargo  ton  of  40  cubic 


30 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


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"Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoe 
tendent  of  Documents,  W 

WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS       31 

feet  is  probably  based  upon  wheat,  as  a  ton  of  this  commodity  occu- 
pies and  requires  40  cubic  feet  of  space.  The  accompanying  table 
shows  the  stowage  factors  of  some  important  commodities,  that  is, 
the  space  occupied  by  a  long  ton  of  the  commodities  as  they  stow 
in  a  ship. 

There  are  five  kinds  of  tonnage  in  use  in  the  shipping  business. 
They  are  dead-weight  tonnage,  cargo  tonnage,  gross,  net,  and  dis- 
placement tonnages. 

1.  Dead-weight  tonnage  expresses  the  number  of  tons  of  2,240 
pounds  that  a  vessel  can  transport  of  cargo,  stores,  and  bunker  fuel. 
It  is  the  difference  between  the  number  of  tons  of  water  a  vessel 
displaces   "light"   and  the  number  of  tons  it  displaces  when  sub- 
merged to   the   "load   water   line."      Dead-weight   tonnage   is    used 
interchangeably    with    dead-weight    carrying    capacity.      A    vessel's 
capacity  for  weight  cargo  is  less  than  its  total  dead-weight  tonnage. 

2.  Cargo  tonnage  is  either  "weight"  or  "measurement."     The 
weight  ton   in   the   United   States   and   in   British   countries   is   the 
English  long  or  gross  ton  of  2,240  pounds.     In  France  and  other 
countries  using  the  metric  system  a  weight  ton  is  2,204.6  pounds. 
A  "measurement"  ton  is  usually  40  cubic  feet  or  1.133  cubic  meters, 
but  in  some  instances  a  larger  number  of  cubic  feet  is  taken  for  a 
ton.    Most  ocean  package  freight  is  taken  at  weight  or  measurement 
(W/M),  ship's  option. 

3.  Gross  tonnage  applies  to  vessels,  not  to  cargo.     It  is  deter- 
mined by  dividing  by  1OO  the  contents,  in  cubic  feet,  of  the  vessel's 
closed-in  spaces.     A  vessel  ton  is  100  cubic  feet.     The  register  of  a 
vessel  states  both  gross  and  net  tonnage. 

4.  Net  tonnage  is  a  vessel's  gross  tonnage  minus  deductions  of 
space    occupied    by    accommodations    for    crew,    by    machinery    for 
navigation,  by  the  engine  room  and  fuel.     A  vessel's  net  tonnage 
expresses  the  space  available  for  the  accommodation  of  passengers 
and  the  stowage  of  cargo.    A  ton  of  cargo,  in  most  instances,  occu- 
pies less  than  100  cubic  feet;  hence,  the  vessel's  cargo  tonnage  may 
exceed  its  net  tonnage  and,  indeed,  the  tonnage  of  cargo  carried  is 
usually  greater  than  the  gross  tonnage. 

5.  Displacement  of  a  vessel   is  the  weight,  in  tons   of  2,240 
pounds,  of  the  vessel  and  its  contents.    Displacement  "light"  is  the 
weight  of  the  vessel  without  stores,  bunker  fuel,  or  cargo.    Displace- 
ment "loaded"  is  the  weight  of  the  vessel,  plus  cargo,  fuel,  and  stores. 


32  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

For  a  modern  freight  steamer  the  following  relative  tonnage 
figures  would  ordinarily  be  approximately  correct : 

Net  tonnage   (B.  R.  T.  net)    4,000 

Gross  tonnage  (B.  R.  T.  gr.)    6,000 

Dead-weight  carrying  capacity    (D.  W.  T.)    10,000 

Displacement  loade'd,  about  (T.  D.)   I3>35O 

A  vessel's  registered  tonnage,  whether  gross  or  net,  is  practi- 
cally the  same  under  the  American  rules  and  the  British  rules. 
When  measured  according  to  the  Panama  or  Suez  tonnage  rules 
most  vessels  have  larger  gross  and  net  tonnages  than  when  measured 
by  British  or  American  national  rules.5 

INCREASED  PROFITS  THROUGH  PREVENTION  OF  DAMAGE 

Increased  profits  are  possible  through  the  prevention  of  damage. 
Not  alone  will  profits  be  increased  by  economy  through  skillful 
stowing,  or  through  quick  dispatch  in  port,  but  also  through  skillful 
loading  of  the  vessel  to  prevent  loss  by  damage  to  the  ship,  by 
damage  to  the  cargo,  by  injuries  to  the  crew,  and  by  realizing  a 
minimum  insurance  rate.  Carelessness  or  lack  of  skill  in  loading 
may  lead  to  claims  for  damages  on  the  part  of  the  shipper,  or  may 
even  endanger  the  very  existence  of  the  ship  itself. 

Prevention  of  Damage  to  the  Ship  or  Injury  to  Crew. — 
Failure  to  place  the  cargo  properly  may  result  in  strain  or  injury  to 
the  vessel,  or  perhaps  in  total  loss.  If  the  weight  is  too  low  the 
ship  will  roll  badly ;  if  too  high  it  may  capsize ;  if  distributed 
unevenly  along  the  keel  the  vessel  will  be  out  of  trim ;  and  if  there 
is  excessive  weight  on  one  side  a  list  will  be  given.  Unless  the  cargo 
is  well  secured,  shifting  will  occur,  with  resultant  strain  and  break- 
age. Moreover,  some  cargo,  because  of  its  very  character,  will  injure 
the  vessel.  Acids  will  corrode  metal  parts,  oils  will  discolor  wood- 
work and  make  it  inflammable,  fertilizers  will  leave  obnoxious  odors, 
and  other  kinds  of  goods  will  have  equally  serious  effects. 

A  large  number  of  vessels  are  wrecked  each  year  because  of  poor 
stowage  and  dangerous  cargoes.  Members  of  the  crew  are  injured 
or  lost  for  the  same  reasons.  More  careful  work  would  result  in  the 
saving  of  many  lives  and  thousands  of  dollars. 

5  Prepared  for  the  United  States  Shipping  Board  by  Dr.  Emory  R. 
Johnson. 


WHARF  EFFICIENCY  AND  SHIPPING  PROFITS      33 

Prevention  of  Damage  to  the  Cargo. — Cargo  should  be  pro- 
tected against  various  sources  of  damage,  such  as  moisture,  heat, 
vermin,  chafe,  and  theft.  The  profits  of  a  voyage  may  be  absorbed 
by  damage  claims,  unless  stowage  is  carefully  carried  out.  Losses 
most  frequently  fall  upon  the  insurance  underwriters,  but  the  ship- 
owner is  liable  if  negligence  is  shown.  It  is  probable  that  a  larger 
percentage  of  cargo  has  been  damaged  in  transit  during  the  last  few 
years  than  ever  before.  Shipowners  have  grown  careless  and  long- 
shoremen doubly  careless.  Remedial  measures  require  concerted  and 
forceful  action. 

Saving  through  Reduced  Insurance  Rates  and  Deprecia- 
tion Charges. — The  shipowner  does  not  have  to  bear  the  high  in- 
surance rates  against  damage  or  theft  of  cargo,  but  a  large  portion  of 
his  gross  income  is  paid  for  insurance  and  depreciation  on  his  vessel. 
The  insurance  charges  will  be  reduced  for  him  if  he  can  place  his 
vessel  in  a  higher  class  or  if  the  whole  level  of  rates  is  lowered.  The 
level  will  be  lowered  only  as  losses  become  less  frequent.  Each 
shipowner  therefore  plays  a  part  in  fixing  his  own  rate,  even  though 
he  often  feels  that  he  has  no  hand  in  the  matter.  There  is  a  closer 
relation  between  his  action  and  the  depreciation  rate. 

Of  course,  depreciation  depends  upon  other  factors  than  stowage, 
but  it  is  evident  that  careless  stowage  leads  to  rapid  depreciation  and 
therefore  to  high  depreciation  charges.  Care  in  stowage  will,  in 
the  long  run,  result  in  great  economy. 

This  introductory  summary  of  factors  entering  into  the  respon- 
sibility of  the  wharf  superintendent  and  his  staff  in  making  a  steam- 
ship company  a  losing  or  a  profitable  business  enterprise  should  be 
kept  firmly  in  mind  throughout  the  following  pages. 


CHAPTER  II 

FROM  LAND  TO  WATER  CARRIER1 
LOADING  AND  UNLOADING 

The  wharf  superintendent,  his  staff,  and  his  equipment  exist  to 
the  end  that  ships  may  be  loaded  and  unloaded ;  they  must  be  loaded 
from  the  land  and  must  discharge  cargo  to  the  land. 

Before  passing  to  the  details  of  the  problem  it  will  be  well  to 
review  in  a  general  way  the  various  types  of  cargo  and  carrier  which 
the  wharf  must  accommodate. 

Movement  of  Cargo  by  Lighters. — In  ports  where  there  is 
insufficient  depth  of  water  at  the  wharves  or  along  the  shore  the 
freight  must  be  moved  between  ship  and  shore  by  means  of  other 
vessels.  At  many  of  the  ports  in  the  world  the  larger  vessels  cannot 
come  up  to  the  shore  at  all  and  must  remain  anchored  "in  stream"  if 
the  port  is  a  river  port,  or  in  the  open  roadstead  of  the  bay.  This  is 
true  at  Shanghai,  for  instance,  where  the  chests  of  tea  are  loaded 
from  the  shore  into  a  small  junk  that  can  come  up  to  the  shallow- 
water  wharves.  The  junk  goes  out  to  the  ship,  which  is  anchored 
down  the  river,  and  the  tea  is  loaded  from  the  junk  overside  into  the 
seagoing  ship  in  the  open  roadstead. 

A  notable  example  of  lighterage  service  in  loading  and  unloading 
ships  and  bringing  the  cargo  to  and  from  the  ship  and  the  shore  is  to 
be  found  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America.  In  most  of  the  west- 
coast  ports  the  ships  anchor  in  the  open  roadstead  and  discharge 
their  freight  onto  lighters.  The  difficulties  of  building  permanent 
wharves  are  very  great  and  would  cost  more  than  the  volume  of  the 
traffic  could  bear.  It  is  more  economical  to  lighter  a  small  volume 
of  freight  per  annum  than  to  expend  large  sums  in  permanent  works. 

Where  there  is  a  sufficient  volume  of  freight  to  justify  the  capital 
investment  in  constructing  permanent  and  solid  landing  places  this 
is  done.  Therefore,  by  necessity,  lighters  may  be  used  to  "lighten" 

1By  R.  S.  MacElwee. 

34 


FROM  LAND  TO  WATER  CARRIER  35 

a  ship  or,  in  the  case  of  a  small  movement  of  cargo  which  will  not 
make  it  pay  to  build  expensive  facilities,  the  lighter  is  used  by  choice. 

Grain. — The  smaller  vessels  or  lighters  may  be  used  by  preference 
in  well-equipped  harbors.  For  instance,  it  is  usually  more  economical 
to  move  a  part  of  a  cargo  of  grain  to  a  ship  taking  on  or  discharging 
miscellaneous  freight  at  a  wharf  than  it  is  to  move  the  ship  to  the 
grain  elevator.  Therefore,  in  all  great  harbors  where  there  is  a 
considerable  movement  of  grain,  there  are  to  be  found  high-power 
pneumatic  or  other  mechanical  floating  grain  elevators  that  come 
alongside  the  ship  to  discharge  or  load  grain  from  lighters  or  barges. 

Bunker  Coal. — Where  a  collier  is  loading  a  full  cargo  of  coal, 
it  is  more  economical  to  bring  the  coal  to  the  ship  for  bunkering 
purposes  than  it  is  to  have  the  ship  go  to  the  coal  pile. 

Heavy  Articles. — Very  heavy  articles  are  loaded  overside  from 
lighters  by  preference.  Usually  the  wharves  are  too  congested  with 
small  articles  to  give  maneuvering  space  and  are  not  equipped  with 
cranes  to  handle  goods  in  cases  or  packages  that  are  too  heavy  to  be 
handled  by  the  ship's  booms  and  deck  winches.  In  such  cases  it  is 
more  economical  to  pick  up  the  heavy  packages  at  the  point  of  origin 
in  the  harbor  and  place  them  on  a  lighter  by  means  of  a  floating 
derrick  with  large  lifting  capacity.  One  derrick  remains  alongside 
the  hatch  to  put  the  heavy  packages  from  the  lighter  into  the  ship. 
The  lighters  are  loaded  by  either  stationary  or  floating  derricks  at 
the  point  of  origin  in  the  harbor.  In  the  best-equipped  ports  articles 
of  two  or  more  tons  are  loaded  from  lighters  and  floating  derricks. 

Dangerous  Cargo. — Dangerous  cargo  is  usually  loaded  from 
lighters  to  a  ship  anchored  some  distance  from  the  shore.  During 
the  World  War  most  of  the  ammunition,  TNT,  cartridges,  shells, 
etc.,  for  the  A.E.F.,  was  loaded  into  ships  lying  at  anchor  at 
Gravesend  Bay. 

River  and  Canal  Barges. — When  a  ship  discharges  or  takes  most 
of  its  cargo  to  or  from  river  and  canal  barges,  there  is  no  need  of 
expensive  wharf  construction,  because  the  ship  can  discharge  directly 
overside  into  these  canal  barges  or  take  its  cargo  from  them.  In 
fact,  certain  great  ports,  in  particular  the  port  of  Rotterdam,  have 
long  rows  of  mooring  posts  or  dolphins  to  which  ships  tie  and  lade 
or  unlade  directly  overside  from  river  and  canal  barges. 

Direct  Connection  by  Wharves. — In  all  the  important  ports 
of  the  world  and  many  of  the  small  ones  ocean-going  ships  tie  up  to 


36  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

a  permanent  structure.  In  our  American  vernacular  we  call  it  a 
"dock."  However,  a  dock  is  an  artificial  basin  of  water  usually 
separated  from  fluctuations  in  the  water  level  by  means  of  water 
gates.  A  dry-dock  is  such  a  basin  that  is  capable  of  being  pumped 
out  and  made  dry.  Unless  it  is  perfectly  obvious  what  is  meant,  it 
is  confusing  to  call  the  wharf  structure  a  dock.  The  technical  name 
for  the  permanent  structure  to  which  a  ship  ties  to  discharge  or  take 
on  cargo  is  a  wharf.  This  wharf  may  be  either  of  pile  construction 
or  masonry  and  fill,  or  a  combination  of  the  two.  Piers  are  wharves 
that  extend  into  the  roadstead  or  fairway  from  the  shore  line.  At 
New  York  the  piers  are  of  pile  construction,  but  at  other  ports, 
particularly  the  new  piers  at  Philadelphia,  Norfolk,  and  Seattle, 
they  are  a  combination  of  pile  and  solid-fill  construction. 

Quay  is  the  European  term  for  wharf  and  generally  means  a 
solid  masonry  wharf,  the  masonry  wall  usually  mounted  on  piling 
cut  off  at  low  water  and  tied  back  by  stringers  into  solid  ground  so 
that  the  weight  of  the  shore  will  not  push  the  wall  out  into  the 
water.  The  quay  structure  is  usually  understood  to  be  a  long  bulk- 
head parallel  to  the  shore,  in  contradistinction  to  the  pier  that  extends 
out  into  the  water  more  or  less  at  right  angles  to  the  shore  line.  The 
wharves  that  border  the  artificially  excavated  basins  in  the  great 
European  ports  are  almost  always  called  quays.  Therefore,  the 
word  quay  has  come  to  be  associated  in  the  mind  with  this  type  of 
structure  and  will  be  used  hereafter  to  denote  a  wharf  along  the 
bank  or  shore  line  or,  more  correctly,  the  bulkhead  line. 

A  quay  system  in  wharf-planning  means  something  more  than  a 
masonry  bulkhead  wall.  The  characteristic  of  the  water-front  plan 
behind  a  quay  wall  is  the  arrangement  of  railroad  car  tracks,  transit 
shed,  marginal  street,  and  warehouses  parallel  with  the  quay  wall 
and  with  the  ship  at  its  berth.  This  enables  cargo  to  move  away 
from  each  hatch  at  right  angles  to  the  ship  without  interfering  with 
work  going  on  at  other  hatches.  A  huge  solid-fill  quay  pier  of 
considerable  length,  2,000  to  5,000  feet,  with  a  width  of  500  to  700 
feet,  yet  exhibiting  the  characteristic  of  freight  contact  with  the  ship 
at  right  angles,  is  a  quay  system.  For  all  purposes  such  a  pier  is 
two  quays  back  to  back.  Authorities  are  in  agreement  that  the  quay 
system  is  more  efficient  than  the  New  York  pier  system  wherever 
physical  conditions  permit  its  operation. 


FROM  LAND  TO  WATER  CARRIER  37 

For  consideration  here  it  is  immaterial  whether  the  structure  is  a 
wharf,  a  pier,  or  a  quay,  so  long  as  it  is  a  well-constructed  and  well- 
equipped  place  for  the  lading  and  unlading  of  ships. 

The  structure  of  the  wharf  from  the  engineering  standpoint 2 
and  the  efficient  layout  and  design  3  of  the  same  to  insure  the  greatest 
facility  of  loading  and  unloading  and  the  handling  of  the  freight 
across  it  are  too  complicated  to  be  entered  into  here.  However,  the 
questions  of  wharf  structure,  design,  and  equipment  are  of  the 
greatest  importance  and  are  not  to  be  treated  casually  in  connection 
with  the  other  problems  in  this  study. 

Wharf  Equipment. — Under  "wharf  equipment"  may  be  under- 
stood the  transit  sheds,  the  presence  or  absence  of  railway  tracks  on 
the  wharf,  the  usual  cargo-handling  machinery,  such  as  cargo  masts, 
winches,  cranes  of  various  kinds,  telphers,  or  overhead  trolleys, 
electric  trailer  trucks,  horizontal  and  elevating  conveyors,  both  elec- 
tric and  gravity,  stacking  and  tiering  machinery,  specialized  equip- 
ment, and  all  of  the  many  other  devices  that  have  been  developed  in 
recent  years  and  are  being  perfected  and  added  to  from  time  to  time. 

Therefore,  a  ship  entering  a  harbor  may  by  necessity  or  by  choice 
establish  indirect  connections  with  the  land  by  means  of  lighter  or 
river  barges,  or  if  the  facilities  are  afforded  may  proceed  to  a  wharf 
for  direct  loading  or  discharging  of  cargo. 

The  manner  of  this  loading  or  discharging,  either  "in  stream"  or 
at  the  wharf  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  nature  and  construction 
of  the  carrier  itself,  as  well  as  upon  the  nature  of  the  cargo.  The 
nature  of  the  cargo  often  determines  the  type  of  ship  and  wharf. 

KINDS  OF  CARGO 

The  kind  of  cargo  is  most  important  in  determining  the  type  of 
cargo  carrier  and  the  machinery  for  loading  and  unloading  the  same. 
The  type  of  cargo  is  the  main  consideration  in  determining  the 
methods  of  storing  it  at  various  points  in  its  movement.  There  is 
bulk  cargo,  both  solid  and  liquid ;  there  are  uniform  packages,  such 
as  bags,  bales,  bananas,  etc. ;  and  there  is  general  cargo,  made  up  of 
all  kinds  of  freight  in  packages,  boxes,  cases,  and  containers  of 

*See  Carlton  Green,  Wharves  and  Piers.    McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  1915. 
*See  R.   S.   MacElwee,  Ports  and   Terminal  Facilities..     McGraw-Hill 
Book  Co.,  1918, 


38  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

irregular  size  and  weight.  These  three  distinct  classes  of  cargo 
are  determined  according  to  the  nature  of  container  or  lack  of 
container  for  the  merchandise.  Also,  there  is  cargo  of  extremely 
high  value,  such  as  gold  and  silver  bullion.  These  different  classes 
must  be  kept  in  mind,  as  both  carriers  and  port  facilities  should  be 
designed  according  to  the  nature  of  the  cargo  handled.  In  addition, 
there  may  be  considered  other  characteristics  of  the  cargo,  such  as  the 
danger  of  fire  and  explosion. 

Bulk  Cargo. — Bulk  cargo  in  general  means  all  commodities  not 
shipped  in  containers. 

Grain. — Hard  grain,  such  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  rice,  and  some- 
times oats,  are  usually  shipped  in  bulk.  Grain  lends  itself  to  han- 
dling and  transfer  by  gravity  flow  or  pumping  by  pneumatic  ele- 
vators, and  also  by  mechanical  conveyors  of  the  chain-bucket  and 
even  the  grab-bucket  variety.  It  is  moved  horizontally  by  belt 
conveyors.  Grain  in  bulk  requires  special  equipment  for  economic 
handling.  Wheat  in  bulk  can  be  handled  very  cheaply,  but  if  con- 
verted into  flour  and  shipped  in  barrels  or  sacks  it  becomes  package 
freight  and  is  handled  by  manual  labor  a  pinch  at  a  time.  The 
holds  of  most  ocean  vessels  are  made  tight  so  that  they  can  carry 
grain  pumped  into  the  holds  in  bulk.  Grain  shipping  has  its  own 
peculiar  considerations,  such  as  conditioning,  elevating,  stowing  for 
safety  to  itself  and  to  the  vessel,  and  other  considerations  that  will 
come  out  from  time  to  time  in  the  discussion  of  stowage.  Grain  is 
an  important  cargo  for  passenger  liners,  particularly  to  fill  "distress 
room"  when  other  cargo  has  not  been  booked  in  sufficient  quantity. 
When  grain  is  shipped  in  bags  it  ceases  to  be  a  bulk  commodity  and 
is  handled  as  any  similar  package  freight. 

Ore  and  Coal. — Ore  and  coal  constitute  a  large  percentage  of 
bulk  cargoes.  These  commodities  are  usually  loaded  by  gravity 
chutes  from  pockets  and  unloaded  by  clam-shell  grab  buckets  or 
chain-bucket  conveyors.  Equipment  for  handling  coal,  ore,  lime, 
sand,  and  gravel,  is  of  special  construction  in  each  case.  The  load- 
ing and  discharging  of  ore  and  coal  has  reached  a  high  state  of 
development  in  the  United  States,  particularly  on  the  Great  Lakes. 
The  movement  of  these  commodities  in  bulk  has  become  so  spe- 
cialized that  distinctive  types  of  vessels  and  wharves  have  been 
designed  for  this  service.  Wherever  these  bulk  commodities  are 
handled  by  regular  ocean-going  vessels,  either  as  part  or  all  of  their 


FROM  LAND  TO  WATER  CARRIER  39 

cargo,  their  loading  and  discharge  become  a  part  of  the  duties  of 
the  wharf  superintendent  or  chief  stevedore. 

Liquid  Cargo. — To  this  group  primarily  belong  petroleum  and 
petroleum  products,  from  crude  oil  to  naphtha,  lubricating  oil  to 
some  extent,  although  this  is  usually  shipped  in  containers,  and 
vegetable  oils  to  an  increasing  extent.  Prerequisites  in  the  handling 
of  liquids  in  bulk  are  tank  vessels,  tank  cars,  pipe  lines,  and  the 
pumping  machinery  to  load  and  to  unload  at  equipped  wharves  or 
by  means  of  tank  lighters.  The  growth  in  the  use  of  fuel  oil  under 
boilers  and  for  internal-combustion  engines  of  the  Diesel  type  is 
increasing  oil  shipments  to  various  tank  stations  throughout  the 
world.  One  interesting  development  may  be  cited.  It  is  usual  for 
trans-Pacific  ships  from  the  United  States  to  carry  sufficient  fuel  oil 
for  the  round  trip.  Oil-burning  ships  going  to  the  Orient  utilize  the 
tanks  made  empty  on  the  outward  voyage  to  carry  bean  oil  in  bulk 
as  cargo  on  the  homeward  voyage.  The  carrying  of  liquids  in  bulk 
is  increasing.  Even  molasses  may  be  carried  in  this  way.  The 
stevedoring  problems  involved  are  very  simple,  as  the  entire  transfer 
from  ship  to  shore  is  by  means  of  pumping  machinery  and  special 
equipment. 

Ships'  Supplies. — Bunkering  of  a  ship  with  coal  or  fuel  oil  and 
putting  on  board  the  necessary  supplies  of  lubricating  oil  and  water 
are  of  particular  interest  to  the  wharf  superintendent.  Unless  a 
ship  is  carrying  these  articles  as  cargo,  it  is  usually  much  cheaper  to 
bring  them  to  the  ship  at  her  wharf  than  to  move  the  ship  to  the 
supply  station.  She  is  usually  breasted  off  from  the  wharf  a 
sufficient  distance  to  enable  coal,  oil,  or  water  lighters  to  come  along 
both  sides  and  to  go  about  their  work  without  interfering  with  cargo 
loading.  Supplying  the  ship  is  bulk-commodity  handling  en  detail 
rather  than  en  gros,  although  large  quantities  are  sometimes  required. 

Unifoitn  Package  Freight. — Analysis  of  the  containers  used 
will  disclose  that  large  amounts  of  freight  are  shipped  in  "uniform 
containers."  By  this  we  mean  barrels,  kegs,  boxes,  bags,  and  crates 
of  a  uniform  size,  such  as  crates  of  oranges,  lemons,  apples,  and 
other  fruit,  crates  of  canned  goods,  bananas  in  bunches,  and  many 
other  commodities  in  packages  running  fairly  uniform  as  to  size 
and  weight.  Bales  of  cotton  are  another  example  of  uniform 
freight.  Distinction  is  drawn  between  the  uniform  container  and 
the  package  that  may  be  of  a  size  to  hold  anything  from  a  phono- 


40  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

graph  to  a  locomotive.  Wherever  there  is  a  large  percentage  of 
uniform  freight  it  may  be  worth  while  to  put  in  special  machinery 
for  handling  it.  This  has  been  done  at  the  cotton  warehouses  in 
Galveston,  New  Orleans,  Mobile,  and  Manchester,  England.  Banana 
ships  are  unloaded  by  specially  constructed  banana  conveyors  and 
unloaders  at  New  Orleans.  The  problem  in  recent  years  has  been 
attacked  with  full  energy,  and  new  developments  in  specialized 
machinery  are  now  appearing  on  the  market. 

General  Cargo. — Although  general  cargo  does  not  comprise 
the  greatest  tonnage  of  all  the  commodities  carried  in  the  world,  it 
is  by  far  the  more  valuable.  For  instance,  although  the  great  ore, 
grain,  and  coal  movements  through  the  Soo  Canal  are  almost  as 
large  in  a  single  month  as  the  general-cargo  movements  through  the 
Suez  Canal  in  a  year,  the  value  per  ton  is  obviously  far  greater  at 
Suez.  General  cargo  makes  up  the  large  amount  of  the  commerce 
of  the  world  as  we  understand  it.  It  is  with  general  cargo  primarily 
that  the  steamship  lines,  and  to  a  large  extent  the  tramp  ship,  are 
concerned.  General  cargo  may  include  some  bulk  shipments ;  it 
includes  a  large  portion  of  uniform  packages  and,  in  addition,  all 
those  various  crates  and  boxes  that  are  familiar  to  our  sight  along 
the  wharves  of  the  world's  ports.  General  cargo  may  also  include 
dangerous  and  precious  cargo.  It  is  the  lading  and  unlading, 
the  handling,  the  warehousing,  the  stowing  of  general  cargo  that 
is  the  principal  object  of  the  study  and  concern  of  marine  ship- 
ping- 
General  cargo,  so  far  as  handling  in  our  American  ports  is 

concerned,  is  divided  roughly  into  two  classes  according  to  the  weight 
of  the  package  to  be  handled.  Shipping  companies  agree  to  load,  as 
part  of  their  duties  as  carriers,  all  pacakages  of  more  than  2,000 
pounds  weight,  that  are  brought  alongside.  When  packages  are  of  a 
greater  weight  than  2,OOO  pounds  each,  in  many  cases  it  becomes 
necessary  to  have  special  equipment,  and  the  steamship  companies  are 
not  inclined  to  consider  the  handling  of  these  large  packages  as  in- 
cluded in  the  freight  rate.  Although  the  modern  cargo  masts  of  newer 
ocean  ships  are  capable  of  lifting  packages  of  more  than  10,000 
pounds  in  weight,  in  most  cases  it  is  expedient  to  use  special  facili- 
ties. Under  most  favorable  conditions  the  large  package  requires 
more  time  and  labor  to  load  and  stow.  Where  it  is  possible  to  set 
a  railroad  car  on  tracks  within  reach  of  the  ship's  tackle,  such  large 


FROM  LAND  TO  WATER  CARRIER  41 

packages  may  be  lifted  aboard  from  a  gondola  or  flat  car  on  the 
wharf  side.  However,  whenever  there  are  many  packages  of  much 
above  two  tons  each  it  is  more  economical  and  more  expedient  to 
float  them  alongside  the  vessel  from  the  water  side  and  to  use  a 
floating  derrick  to  put  them  aboard.  This  equipment  for  handling 
heavy  freight  is  in  a  sense  analogous  to  the  equipment  for  handling 
grain  or  cbal,  since  it  is  special  equipment  and  gives  water-side 
delivery.  All  such  miscellaneous  parcels,  large  and  small,  go  to 
make  up  the  cargo  of  a  modern  steamship  and  tax  the  ingenuity 
of  the  stevedore.  From  the  outset  it  is  well  to  remember  that 
general  cargo  is  divided  roughly  into  light  packages  and  heavy 
packages. 

Dangerous  Cargo. — Dangerous  cargo  belongs  either  to  the 
general  or  to  bulk-cargo  categories.  The  determining  feature  is  not 
the  container  or  the  size  of  the  package,  but  the  inherent  quality  of 
the  commodity.  The  question  of  shipping  dangerous  cargo  was 
peculiarly  important  during  the  World  War  when  the  United  States 
was  making  delivery  to  the  Allies  of  TNT,  gunpowder,  car- 
tridges, shells  and  other  explosives.  The  terrific  blow-up  at  the 
Longtown  Pier  in  New  Jersey  that  wrecked  all  the  window  glass  in 
lower  Manhattan  Island  is  one  example  of  how  dangerous  cargo 
may  act  on  certain  occasions.  Petroleum,  cargo  coal,  cotton,  acids, 
rags,  and  many  other  commodities  are  considered  dangerous  cargo. 
Precautions  must  be  taken  to  safeguard  the  ship,  its  burden,  and  its 
crew.  The  quality  of  the  cargo,  therefore,  in  this  study  will  receive 
considerable  attention,  as  the  wharf  superintendent  and  his  chief 
stevedore  must  be  constantly  on  the  alert  as  regards  the  nature  of 
the  cargo  in  its  relation  to  all  the  factors  of  stowage. 

Precious  Cargo. — Precious  cargo  is  a  subdivision  of  general 
cargo.  In  precious  cargo  we  have  shipments  of  goods  of  very  high 
value,  in  particular  shipments  of  gold  and  silver  and  other  precious 
metals  and  precious  stones.  The  mails  are  precious  cargo.  The 
transmarine  shipment  of  precious  metals  takes  a  very  important  place 
in  international  commerce.  Before  international  exchange  and  credits 
were  entirely  upset  by  the  World  War,  gold  shipments  were  made 
by  the  principal  commercial  nations  to  balance  payment.  It  required 
particular  handling  and  safeguarding  on  the  wharf,  while  being 
loaded,  and  aboard  the  ship,  adding  much  to  the  care  and  respon- 
sibility of  the  pier  superintendent  and  his  force. 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


TYPES  OF  CARRIERS 

The  nature  of  the  cargo  exerts  the  dominating  influence  on  the 
types  of  carrier  and  the  cargo  transfer,  handling,  and  stowage 
facilities.  The  tendency  toward  special  designs  for  special  cargoes 
and  trades  is  marked,  and  specialization  of  equipment  afloat  and 
ashore  should  be  increased.  At  present  there  are  two  main  groupings 
of  carriers  from  the  cargo  transfer  and  handling  standpoint:  (i) 
side  port,  and  (2)  deck-hatch — the  horizontal  and  the  vertical 
transfer  systems. 

Side-port  Vessels. — Side  ports  for  loading  and  unloading 
characterizes  one  class  of  vessels.  This  class  is  composed  principally 
of  coastwise,  lake  and  river  vessels,  and  covered  lighters ;  also  some 

types  of  river  barges.  Coastwise, 
river,  and  lake  passenger  vessels 
have  passenger  accommodations 
almost  the  entire  length  of  the 
ship,  and  the  only  point  of 
entrance  for  cargo  is  through  the 
side  ports.  Side-port  transfer  ne- 
cessitates a  horizontal  movement 
for  all  deck  loads.  If  goods  are 
loaded  from  the  decks  into  the  holds 
it  must  be  done  within  the  ship. 
Even  if  lake  and  coastwise  vessels  are  not  constructed  for  pas- 
senger accommodation,  the  main  deck  of  the  vessel  is  covered  from 
stem  and  stern  and  they  are  loaded  through  side  ports  just  the  same 
as  their  more  luxurious  sisters,  the  passenger  liners.  The  transit 
movement  is  by  necessity  a  horizontal  one.  Side-port  vessels  are 
usually  loaded  by  longshoremen  trucking  the  cargo  across  a  gang- 
plank from  the  wharf  to  the  main  deck  of  the  vessel. 

Hatch  Vessels. — Deck  hatches  characterize  ocean-going  vessels 
which  are  loaded  vertically.  The  usual  cargo  carrier  has  four  or 
five  hatches.  Cargo  is  hoisted  vertically,  swung  sidewise  across  the 
deck,  and  lowered  vertically.  Instead  of  the  longshoremen  walking 
from  the  ship  to  the  shore  with  their  load  and  back  again  empty, 
there  are  three  gangs :  one  in  the  hold,  one  on  the  deck  working  the 
winches,  and  one  on  the  wharf.  The  entire  operation  of  hatch  loading 
and  stowing  is  fundamentally  different  from  that  of  side-port  loading. 


FIG.     i. — SIDE    PORTS.      A    Great 
Lakes  package  freight  steamer. 


FROM  LAND  TO  WATER  CARRIER  43 

All-hatch  Vessels. — Vessels  are  built  for  particular  kinds  of 
service.  One  of  the  most  important  types  of  cargo-carrying  vessels 
is  that  developed  on  the  Great  Lakes,  in  which  the  entire  hull  of  the 
vessel,  except  a  small  section  aft,  reserved  for  the  boilers  and  engine 
is  one  continuous  hold  divided  by  a  few  bulkheads.  The  hatches 
extend  almost  entirely  across  the  vessel  from  rail  to  rail.  There 
are  sometimes  as  many  as  thirty-eight  hatches  over  the  cargo  space 
of  a  single  vessel.  The  hold  is  unobstructed  by  stanchions,  as  there 
is  only  one  deck  to  support.  These  vessels  are  built  to  carry  all 
materials  in  bulk  that  can  be  handled  by  gravity  chutes  into  the 
ship  and  by  grab  buckets  or  suction  elevators  out  of  the  ship,  such  as 
small,  hard  grain,  coal,  limestone,  etc.  Vessels  of  this  type  require 
special  equipment  for  loading  and  unloading,  and  the  equipment 
and  the  vessels  are  built  to  conform  to  a  definite  system.  The 
question  of  stevedoring  is,  therefore,  one  almost  entirely  of  mechani- 
cal appliances,  the  ideal  toward  which  all  water-front  operation 
strives. 

Ocean-going  Colliers. — Ocean-going  colliers  and  ore-carry- 
ing vessels  have  been  developed  that  are  somewhat  similar  to  the 
lake  carrier,  but  they  have  more  lateral  and  longitudinal  rigidity  to 
be  able  to  withstand  the  strain  of  the  greater  wave  lengths  of  the 
high  seas.  This  has  led  to  the  building  of  bulk-freight  carriers 
specially  designed  for  the  ocean.  The  typical  collier  or  the  ore- 
carrying  vessel — for  instance,  in  the  Swedish-Rotterdam  ore  trade — 
is  easily  distinguishable  by  the  double  rows  of  hoisting  masts  corre- 
sponding in  number  to  at  least  twice  the  number  of  hatches.  In 
principle,  the  typical  collier,  or  ore-carrying  sea  vessel,  is  the  same 
as  the  very  efficient  lake  carrier,  except  that  it  carries  its  own  han- 
dling machinery  in  order  to  discharge  at  any  point  directly  overside 
into  lighters,  canal  boats,  or  river  barges. 

Tank  Vessels. — The  tanker  is  another  development  of  the 
specially  designed  bulk-cargo  vessels.  Tankers  are  similar  to  the 
all-hatch  lake  vessel  in  principle,  that  is,  they  have  the  large  mid- 
ship structure  unobstructed  and  the  machinery  and  the  navigating 
bridges  as  near  stern  and  stem  as  possible.  Tankers  carry  their  own 
pumping  machinery  in  order  to  handle  their  cargoes.  The  principal 
cargo  carried  by  tankers  in  bulk  is  crude  and  refined  petroleum, 
gasoline,  etc.  Tankers  sometimes  carry  molasses,  bean  oil,  and  other 
similar  liquids  in  bulk. 


44  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Refrigerator  Ships. — Refrigerator  ships  may  be  especially 
built  for  the  purpose  from  keel  up,  or  they  may  be  ordinary  tramp 
or  liner  vessels  fitted  with  refrigeration  to  carry  meats,  fresh  veg- 
etables, fruits,  and  other  perishable  commodities.  Refrigerated  car- 
goes require  special  handling.  The  refrigerator  ship  in  outward 
appearance  does  not  differ  materially  from  the  ordinary  cargo  vessel. 

These,  then,  are  the  principal  materials  with  which  we  have  to 
deal — cargoes,  wharves,  and  ships. 


CHAPTER  III 

WHARF  OFFICE  ORGANIZATION1 

The  General  Wharf  Superintendent. — The  general  wharf  su- 
perintendent is  in  charge  of  all  the  piers  and  has  every  pier  activity, 
even  to  the  smallest  detail,  always  at  his  command.  His  experience 
must  be  such  that  whenever  he  walks  through  the  piers,  which  he 
does  once  or  twice  a  day,  he  can  tell  at  a  glance  whether  all 
the  activities  are  moving  along  as  smoothly  as  they  should.  He  is 
supplied  with  a  clerical  assistant,  who  is  a  stenographer  and  attends 
to  the  office  routine  work,  which  is  practically  the  same  as  the  work 
in  any  commercial  office. 

The  Pier  Superintendent. — The  general  superintendent  has 
under  him  a  pier  superintendent  for  each  pier,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  superintend  everything  pertaining  to  the  handling  of  cargo  from 
the  time  it  is  accepted  by  the  delivery  clerk  from  the  owner  or  shipper 
until  it  is  properly  stowed  in  the  ship,  or  from  the  time  the  cargo  is 
taken  from  the  ship  and  delivered  to  the  owner  or  consignee,  baggage 
included.  The  pier  superintendent  must  at  all  times  keep  in  close 
touch  with  each  progressive  step,  in  order  to  give  any  information  at 
any  time  when  called  upon  by  the  general  wharf  superintendent  or 
the  head  office.  It  is  his  duty  to  adjust  all  minor  misunderstandings 
that  may  occur  on  his  pier,  unless  he  feels  the  trouble  is  beyond  his 
jurisdiction. 

The  Stowage  Clerk. — The  stowage  clerk,  usually  located  in 
the  office  of  the  pier  superintendent,  sees  that  the  cargo  is  stowed  in 
accordance  with  the  stowage  plan,  which  has  been  previously  pre- 
pared by  the  general  manager  after  consulting  the  ship's  captain. 
The  stowage  clerk  copies  this  stowage  plan  on  a  profile  chart  and 
makes  two  additional  copies,  one  to  go  with  the  ship  and  one  to  be 
sent  to  the  clearance  office  of  the  customhouse.  The  first  chart 
made  out  is  retained  by  the  general  wharf  superintendent. 


aThis  chapter  is  taken  largely  from  MacElwee,  "Training  for  the 
Steamship  Business."  Miscellaneous  Series  No.  98,  Bureau  of  Foreign 
and  Domestic  Commerce,  Washington.  (Sold  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Documents.) 

45 


46  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

The  stowage  clerk  has  another  duty  to  perform.  Some  captains, 
by  reason  of  their  own  experience  in  navigating  the  ship,  want  the 
ship  loaded  so  that  she  will  ride  on  an  even  keel ;  others  may  want 
the  ship  to  have  a  drag,  and  still  others  may  want  her  slightly  down 
at  the  head.  The  figures  on  the  bow  and  stern  which  indicate  the 
ship's  load  draft  are  exactly  6  inches  high  and  are  spaced  6  inches 
apart.  For  instance,  from  the  bottom  of  figure  12  to  the  bottom  of 


I  Manager  of  Operations  [ 


General  Wharf  Supt   | 


I    LomjsKoremer.*!  I  Detective  Force!      j  Ttme  K,ee-££jJ 

¥  Hired  from  or  |AsstT.meK*«P«T| 

thru  Stevedores 

to  Handle  Baggage. 

FlG.   2. — PLAN  OF  WHARF-OFFICE  ORGANIZATION. 

figure  11  is  just  12  inches.  Consequently,  if  the  captain  wishes  his 
ship  to  have  a  6-inch  drag,  the  stowage  clerk,  when  the  ship  is  loaded, 
will  see  that  the  water  line  coincides  with  the  top  of  a  figure  on  the 
stern  and  is  even  with  the  bottom  of  the  same  figure  on  the  bow. 
If  a  ship  is  to  ride  on  an  even  keel,  the  water  line  must  coincide 
either  with  the  top  or  bottom  of  corresponding  figures  on  the  bow 
and  stern.  The  stowage  clerk,  toward  the  end  of  loading,  watches 
the  marks  closely  and  indicates  to  the  chief  stevedore  that  the  vessel 
is  not  receiving  the  required  trim  by  so  and  so  much.  In  fact,  the 


WHARF  OFFICE  ORGANIZATION  47 

stowage  clerk  frequently  checks  the  fore-and-aft  drafts  during  load- 
ing in  order  to  keep  the  ship  on  an  even  keel  until  nearly  loaded, 
when  he  proceeds  carefully  in  order  to  have  the  ship  ride  as  the  cap- 
tain wishes. 

The  Store  Clerk. — The  store  clerk,  also  directly  under  the  pier 
superintendent,  is  in  charge  of  supplies,  such  as  ropes,  slings,  falls, 
etc.,  which  belong  to  the  piers  and  are  used  in  connection  with  the 
ship's  gear  when  handling  cargo.  It  is  his  duty  to  see  that  every- 
thing under  his  care  is  kept  in  its  proper  place,  to  keep  a  record  of  all 
material  in  his  charge,  order  new  material  when  needed,  and  dispose 
of  all  worn-out  rope  and  slings.  He  gives  out  rope,  slings,  etc.,  to 
the  longshoremen  on  checks  or  receipts,  and  is  held  responsible  for 
all  material  not  returned  to  him.  He  cuts  all  new  rope  to  the  proper 
lengths;  his  helpers  (longshoremen  as  a  rule)  make  up  slings  from 
the  best  part  of  worn  rope,  also  splice  new  slings,  and  in  general 
keep  everything  required  in  good  shape,  including  the  repairing  of 
blocks,  etc. 

BAGGAGE  DEPARTMENT 

Operation  of  this  department  comes  under  the  general  wharf 
superintendent.  It  consists  of  a  baggage  master,  an  assistant  bag- 
gage master,  and  baggage  clerks,  according  to  the  amount  of  pas- 
senger travel.  All  rules  or  instructions  governing  the  handling  of 
baggage  are  issued  by  the  passenger  department. 

Baggage  Master. — The  baggage  master  is  responsible  for  this 
department.  It  is  his  duty  to  see  that  the  rules  issued  by  the  pas- 
senger department  are  carried  out.  On  outward  sailings  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  baggage  master  to  record  all  baggage  and  see  that  it 
is  properly  laden  aboard  steamer  as  the  passenger  desires — in  the 
stateroom,  in  the  baggage  room  where  passenger  may  have  access  on 
the  voyage,  or  in  the  hold  where  it  is  not  accessible  until  the  steamer 
arrives  at  destination.  On  inbound  steamers  it  is  the  duty  of  this 
department  to  see  that  all  passengers'  baggage  discharged  from  the 
steamer  is  placed  under  the  proper  letter  of  the  alphabet  on  the  pier 
for  customs  examination.  The  labor  for  handling  trunks  on  the 
wharf  is  furnished  by  the  chief  stevedore.  Longshoremen  are  glad 
to  get  this  sort  of  work  because  of  the  tips  in  addition  to  wages. 
Hand  baggage  and  steamer  trunks  are  handled  by  the  ship's  stewards. 


48  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

The  baggage  department  employees  must  be  careful  and  courteous 
at  all  times.  A  passenger's  comfort  depends  in  many  ways  on  the 
efficiency  of  this  staff.  It  is  important  for  the  baggage  department 
officials,  especially  in  handling  third-class  and  steerage  passengers' 
baggage,  to  have  a  speaking  knowledge  of  foreign  languages,  such 
as  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  the  Scandinavian  languages,  German, 
Polish,  and  Russian,  as  well  as  familiarity  with  the  value  of  foreign 
money.  There  is  a  separate  baggage  room  for  cabin  passengers  and 
for  steerage  passengers. 

THE  RECEIVING  DEPARTMENT 

There  is  a  head  receiving  clerk  for  each  pier  (at  Atlantic  ports 
this  is  for  eastbound  freight  received  for  loading  on  to  the  ship), 
with  a  clerical  staff  of  from  two  to  six  assistants,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  pier  and  the  amount  of  cargo  handled.  On  the  larger 
piers  the  staff  includes  an  assistant  clerk,  a  cargo-sheet  clerk,  a 
lighter  clerk,  an  extension  clerk,  and  checkers  or  tally  clerks. 

The  Chief  Receiving  Clerk. — This  employee  is  in  charge  of 
the  receipt  of  all  goods  on  the  pier.  He  hires  his  assistants,  who  are 
permanent  employees  (not  day  workers),  and  assigns  them  to  their 
regular  work  and  is  responsible  for  the  records  and  reports  of  his 
office.  He  also  indicates  the  number  of  tallymen  required,  who  are 
hired  and  assigned  to  him,  or  he  may  hire  them  himself.  At  the 
end  of  each  loading  of  a  ship  he  turns  the  records  over  to  the  pier 
superintendent.  He  is  in  line  of  promotion  to  take  the  position  of 
pier  superintendent,  but,  of  course,  has  competition  from  other 
members  of  the  wharf  staff  who  are  heads  of  other  departments. 

The  Assistant  Receiving  Clerk. — The  assistant  receiving  clerk 
occupies  a  permanent  position ;  that  is,  he  is  not  hired  by  the  hour 
for  the  job  as  are  tallymen  and  longshoremen.  Usually  he  is  not  a 
union  man  and  is  on  a  straight  salary  basis.  He  is  responsible 
for  the  signing  of  the  dock  receipts  when  goods  are  delivered  at  the 
pier.  The  dock  receipt  is  a  very  important  ad  interim  document. 
The  receiving  clerk  must  come  up  through  the  other  ranks  in  order 
to  receive  that  training  in  routine  detail  which  will  enable  him  easily 
to  detect  mistakes  and  serious  errors  when  they  come  over  his  desk. 
Through  experience  as  tallyman  and  clerk  he  acquires  a  knowledge 


WHARF  OFFICE  ORGANIZATION  49 

of  packages  and  freight  as  to  size,  weight,  and  many  other  details, 
that  enables  him  to  recognize  a  mistake  at  a  glance.  He  is  in  charge 
of  the  detail  work  of  the  receiving  office.  He  directs  the  activities 
of  the  lighter,  stowage,  and  tally  clerks,  changing  them  from  point  to 
point  in  accordance  with  the  demands  of  loading  and  unloading  the 
cargo,  or  when  handling  cargo  on  the  pier.  He  checks  all  records 
and  reports. 

Hours  of  Work. — The  receiving  clerks,  delivery  clerks  and  their 
assistants,  time  keepers  and  assistants,  baggage  masters  and  assis- 
tants, all  work  eight  hours  a  day,  8  A.M.  to  5  P.M.,  with  one  hour 
for  lunch.  They  get  time  and  a  half  for  all  overtime,  and  double 
time  for  Sundays  and  holidays.  In  May,  1919,  according  to  the 
president  of  the  Steamship  Clerks'  Association,  there  was  no  stand- 
ard pay  for  these  clerks,  the  salary  ranging  from  $36  per  week  as  a 
minimum  to  $50  maximum. 

The  Cargo-sheet  Clerk. — The  position  of  a  cargo-sheet  clerk 
is  an  advancement  over  the  extension  and  lighterage  clerks.  He  is 
responsible  for  making  up  the  dock  list  or  cargo  sheet  from  the  stubs 
of  the  dock  receipts  that  are  given  to  the  truckmen  who  deliver  the 
goods  and  from  the  tally  sheets  handed  to  him  by  the  extension  clerk 
and  the  lighterage  clerk.  The  cargo-sheet  clerk  is  responsible  for  the 
correct  entering  on  the  cargo  sheets  of  all  necessary  information 
required  before  the  vessel  leaves  the  pier.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  this  work  must  be  absolutely  accurate  and  also  done  with 
dispatch,  because  the  ship,  when  loading,  receives  its  cargo  rapidly 
and  must  not  be  delayed  because  of  the  lack  of  data  that  cargo  clerks 
get  together  to  make  the  manifest.  The  manifest  must  be  sworn  to 
and  delivered  at  the  customhouse  as  a  true  account  of  amount,  kind, 
and  destination  of  articles  of  cargo  before  the  ship  can  be  cleared. 
("Dock  sheets"  of  receiving  clerks'  returns  should  not  be  confused 
with  "cargo  books,"  which  are  made  for  use  of  ship's  officer  only.) 

The  Lighter  Clerk. — Another  tallyman  promoted  to  full  time 
and  permanent  pay  in  the  receiving  office  is  the  lighterage  clerk.  He 
receives  the  lighterage  manifest  and  from  it  makes  up  the  data  that 
goes  into  the  ship's  manifest.  He  makes  a  dock  sheet  for  this  pur- 
pose. Through  tallymen  he  keeps  tally  of  all  cargo  loaded  into  the 
ship  from  a  lighter.  He  keeps  a  record  of  the  number  of  pieces  of 
cargo,  the  number  and  mark  on  each  piece,  the  weight  and  measure- 
ment, the  number  of  the  hold,  and  the  deck  in  the  hold  in  which  it 


50  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

is  stowed.     Some  companies  require  him  to  get  this  data  from  the 
lighter  and  others  from  the  deck  of  the  ship. 

The  Extension  Clerk. — The  tally  sheets  from  the  tallymen  go 
to  the  extension  clerk  in  the  receiving  office  on  the  pier.  The  duty 
of  the  extension  clerk  is  to  convert  all  straight  measurements  of  the 
various  pieces  of  cargo  into  cubic  measurements.  The  position  of 
extension  clerk  is  a  promotion  from  that  of  tallyman.  He  is  a 
union  man  and  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  tallyman,  but  works 
full  time.  Although  receiving  the  same  wage,  he  is  not  laid  off  on 
slack  days  at  the  pier.  The  extension  clerk,  by  means  of  conversion 
or  cubical  measurement  tables,  converts  the  weights  and  measure- 
ments on  the  tally  slips  to  weight  tons  or  40  cubic  feet,  and  consoli- 
dates the  report  ready  for  the  calculation  of  freight  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  dock  sheets  from  which  is  made  the  ship's  manifest  in 
the  main  office.  A  case  may  measure  4  by  4  by  10  feet.  This  is  160 
cubic  feet  or  4  measurement  tons.  The  case  may  weigh  only  2^/2 
tons,  but  the  extension  clerk  marks  down  the  "tonnage"  on  which 
the  ship  receives  the  greatest  return.  Freight  charges  are  based  on 
these  records. 

Tallymen  or  Checkers. — At  the  bottom  of  the  list  of  clerks  are 
tallymen,  sometimes  called  "tally  clerks"  or  "checkers,"  who  con- 
stitute the  foundation  of  the  clerical  force  on  the  pier.  A  large  pier 
will  employ  from  ten  to  thirty  tallymen  in  each  department  for 
incoming  and  for  outgoing  freight.  They  count  and  measure 
packages  delivered  to  the  wharf  for  shipment,  and  note  any  damaged 
or  unusual  condition  of  the  package.  They  also  check  or  tally  the 
cargo  discharged  from  vessels.  Their  reports  are  made  on  tally 
sheets.  Tallymen  are  usually  union  men.  They  are  paid  by  the 
hour  on  an  eight-hour  day  basis,  but  in  the  interest  of  efficiency  as 
many  as  possible  are  kept  in  steady  employment  on  the  piers. 

The  working  hours  for  checkers  (May,  1919),  or  tally  clerks, 
are  from  8  A.M.  to  5  P.M.,  with  an  hour  for  lunch,  six  days  a  week, 
for  which  they  receive  $5  a  day.  If  they  work  before  8  A.M.,  or 
after  5  P.M.,  they  receive  $1  an  hour  for  such  service.  For  Sundays 
and  holidays  they  receive  $8,  whether  they  work  one  or  eight  hours.2 

Tallymen  may  be  advanced  to  more  responsible  and  permanent 
positions,  but  they  are  always  paid  on  the  time  basis  until  they 

2  The  above  figures  were  obtained  from  the  business  agent  and  secre- 
tary of  the  Checkers'  Union,  Local  874,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


WHARF  OFFICE  ORGANIZATION  51 

become  assistant  chiefs  or  chiefs  of  a  department.  Tallymen  should 
have  a  good  common-school  education  or  preferably  a  high-school 
education.  They  are  usually  taken  on  when  about  eighteen  years 
old,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  a  college  graduate  should  not  begin 
as  a  tallyman  in  the  shipping  business.  A  young  man  taking  this 
position  should  have  a  good  handwriting  and  be  good  in  arithmetic, 
as  much  of  the  work  is  measuring  dimensions  of  cargo.  The  position 
is  one  of  the  best  openings  for  a  man  to  learn  the  shipping  business 
from  the  ground  up.  The  vice  president  of  a  great  company,  who 
himself,  at  sixteen,  started  as  an  apprentice  in  a  shipping  office, 
stated  that  there  is  no  place  in  the  shipping  business  where  a  man 
can  learn  as  much  about  it  in  the  same  length  of  time  as  in  the 
position  of  tallyman. 

THE  STEVEDORE 

The  stevedore  is  the  man  who  is  directly  responsible  for  the 
loading  and  stowing  of  a  ship  or  for  discharging  its  cargo.  The 
stevedore's  gang  for  each  hatch  unloading  usually  consists  of  23 
longshoremen,  6  "in  the  hold,"  5  sailormen  on  deck  and  12  men  on 
the  pier.  These  three  groups  or  gangs  are  under  one  stevedore  fore- 
man, or  sometimes  there  is  one  foreman  for  the  forward  hatches  and 
another  foreman  for  the  after  hatches.  Longshoreman  work  is  pri- 
marily manual  labor,  although  much  skill  is  developed,  particularly 
by  those  who  handle  the  deck  winches  that  run  the  fall  ropes.  The 
stevedore  is  the  executive.  It  is  much  the  same  relation  as  that 
existing  between  masons  and  carpenters  and  the  contractor.  Stowing 
in  the  hold  requires  experience  and  skill.3 

The  Chief  or  Boss  Stevedore. — The  chief  or  boss  stevedore 
of  a  pier  is  an  important  person.  He  usually  rises  from  the  ranks 
of  the  longshoremen.  He  learns  by  experience  how  a  ship  can  be 
loaded  and  in  time  acquires  knowledge  of  the  various  ships  of  the 
line  and  their  peculiarities.  Ships  have  their  own  individuality  and 
do  not  carry  their  loads  alike.  He  is  assisted  by  the  ship's  officers, 
who  also  acquire  an  intimate  knowledge  of  how  a  cargo  can  best  be 
stowed  on  their  own  particular  vessel.  The  ship  must  be  loaded  to 
capacity  so  as  to  avoid  waste  of  carrying  space,  and  yet  it  must  not 
be  loaded  below  the  safe-load  line  or  in  such  manner  as  to  strain 

3  See  Chapter  IV,  page  55;  also  Barnes,  The  Longshoremen,  pp.  51-54. 


52  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

hull  or  expose  cargo  to  damage.  Furthermore,  certain  kinds  of 
cargo  are  prohibited  by  law  and  certain  other  kinds  may  be 
carried  only  in  a  manner  specified  by  law.  A  thoroughly  competent 
chief  stevedore  is  of  such  importance  that  he  is  seldom  promoted  to 
be  pier  superintendent,  it  being  more  advantageous  to  keep  him  on 
the  job  and  increase  his  pay.  A  longshoreman  or  a  boss  stevedore 
may  save  some  capital  and  become  a  contracting  stevedore,  but  this 
has  lately  become  more  difficult,  as  an  increased  number  of  steam- 
ship lines  do  their  stevedoring  under  their  own  salaried  chief  steve- 
dore instead  of  letting  it  out  on  contracts. 

Longshoremen. — Longshoremen  4  are  usually  union  men.  They 
work  by  the  hour.  Formerly  a  gang  could  load  250  tons  a  day,  but 
now  the  efficiency  of  the  longshoremen  has  decreased  until  a  gang 
will  load  less  than  half  this  amount.  Wages  have  about  doubled, 
making  a  400  per  cent  increase  in  the  cost  per  ton  of  loading  and 
discharging  vessels.  As  in  other  industries,  the  only  remedy  is  to 
increase  the  output  of  the  worker  by  mechanical  inventions.  "Labor- 
saving  machinery"  is  simply  an  expression  for  mechanical  devices 
that  will  enable  one  longshoreman  to  handle  many  more  tons  of 
freight  in  eight  hours. 

The  Timekeeper. — Each  pier  has  a  timekeeper  and  an  assistant 
timekeeper.  Sometimes  a  tallyman  is  assigned  as  a  third  member  of 
this  force.  On  some  piers  the  timekeeper  force  is  a  large  one ;  on 
others  two  or  three  on  each  pier  are  considered  sufficient.  The 
qualification  for  this  position  is  primarily  a  memory  for  faces  and 
names.  The  timekeeper  checks  the  time  that  the  men  enter  and  leave 
the  pier.  Some  lines  use  a  time  clock,  but  on  some  large  piers  full 
reliance  is  placed  on  the  timekeeper's  quick  eye  and  memory.  It 
requires  a  clear  head  to  be  a  timekeeper,  as  he  has  to  charge  labor 
time  against  forty-eight  different  items  (in  the  cost  accounting  of 
the  company  here  cited).  The  timekeeper  also  makes  reports  on 
accidents.  The  performance  of  the  duties  of  this  position  involves 
considerable  exposure  at  drafty  pier  entrances,  summer  and  winter, 
but  as  it  is  almost  entirely  an  open-air  job,  it  offers  this  advantage 
to  those  who  do  not  like  to  work  inside.  The  timekeeper  makes  up 
the  pay  envelopes  for  the  men  and  is  responsible  for  the  pay  of  the 
pier  force.  A  tallyman  is  often  assigned  to  full-time  duty  as  assist- 
ant timekeeper  and  is  in  line  for  promotion  to  timekeeper. 

*  See  Chapter  IV,  page  55;  also  Barnes,   The  Longshoremen, 


WHARF  OFFICE  ORGANIZATION  53 

THE  DELIVERY  DEPARTMENT 

The  delivery  department  has  charge  of  incoming  freight.  (At 
Atlantic  ports  this  is  westbound  freight.)  For  each  group  of  piers 
there  is  a  chief  delivery  clerk,  who  has  under  him  a  delivery  clerk 
on  each  pier.  Beginning  at  the  bottom  are  tallymen,  who  belong  to 
the  same  union  as  those  of  the  receiving  department.  The  force  of 
tallymen  is  the  same  and  may  be  employed  by  either  department. 
The  tallymen  check  the  goods  as  they  come  from  the  ship  on  to  the 
pier  and  make  out  checking  slips  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  possible 
at  the  office  to  see  what  cargo  on  the  manifest  has  been  received. 
Errors  of  excess  or  deficiency  are  detected  in  this  way  and  brought 
to  the  attention  of  the  delivery  clerk,  who  is  responsible  for  the 
notation  of  any  pilfering  or  damaged  packages. 

Aside  from  the  tallymen,  the  office  force  of  the  inbound  freight 
department  consists  of  a  delivery  clerk,  one  or  two  assistant  delivery 
clerks,  clearance  clerk,  and  customhouse  clerks,  who  handle  the 
several  operations  of  inbound  freight  routine. 

While  the  ship  is  at  sea  the  cargo-discharging  receipt  book  is 
made  up  by  the  purser  from  the  ship's  manifest.  When  the  goods 
are  landed  from  the  vessel  and  made  ready  for  deliveiy  they  are 
checked  by  the  tallymen  according  to  marks  and  numbers  on  tally 
slips  and  stamped  by  the  customs  inspector  to  show  that  the  necessary 
request  for  landing  permit  has  been  lodged.  The  tally  slips  are 
sent  to  the  delivery  office  and  if  everything  is  in  order,  freight  paid, 
etc.,  receipts  are  taken  and  delivery  effected.  The  cargo  book  goes 
to  the  receiving  office  on  the  pier;  the  bills  of  lading  go  to  the 
customhouse  and  are  entered  there ;  and  a  permit  to  take  the  goods 
from  the  pier  is  issued.  When  the  goods  are  taken  from  the  pier 
an  entry  to  that  effect  is  made  in  the  cargo  book.  When  10  per  cent 
of  the  goods  go  to  the  customs  appraisers'  stores  for  valuation,  they 
must  be  accounted  for  and  the  necessary  entry  made  and  papers 
issued  to  cover  this  merchandise.  The  clearance  clerk  is  entrusted 
with  the  issuing  of  the  proper  notices  and  the  checking  of  delivery 
of  shipments  to  the  consignee.  In  addition,  the  members  of  his 
force  must  make  out  lien  notices  on  the  freight,  and  after  five  days 
prepare  removal  notices  directing  removal  of  goods  within  forty- 
eight  hours.  If  they  are  not  removed  they  go  to  warehouses  "at  the 
cost  of  the  merchandise,"  for  which  the  proper  papers  and  receipts 


54  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

must  be  made  out.  There  are  also  general  order  store  notices, 
damaged  cargo  special  reports,  claim  reports,  and  many  other  forms 
that  must  be  rapidly  and  carefully  handled  by  this  force  and  checked 
by  the  chief  clerk  in  charge.  The  inbound  or  delivery  department 
on  the  pier  is  complicated  because  of  the  customs  formalities. 
Damage  or  loss  is  usually  detected  at  the  time  of  landing  and 
delivery  of  the  merchandise  to  the  consignee  rather  than  when  it  is 
loaded.  This  puts  most  of  the  work  for  claims  and  adjustments  on 
the  receiving  staff. 

THE  DETECTIVE  FORCE 

Under  the  wharf  superintendent  on  every  pier  is  a  private  detec- 
tive force  maintained  by  the  company  or  furnished  by  an  agency 
under  contract.  The  paper  work  in  connection  with  service  will  be 
discussed  in  a  later  chapter.  These  detectives,  like  those  in  depart- 
ment stores,  are  primarily  interested  in  preventing  pilfering;  they 
become  expert  in  noticing  any  package  that  has  been  tampered  with 
and  in  diagnosing  other  causes  of  damage  to  cargo.  The  judgment 
of  an  experienced  pier  detective  is  valuable  in  the  adjustment  of  all 
kinds  of  insurance  claims  as  well  as  in  the  protection  of  the  cargo. 

There  is  a  chief  detective  with  several  assistants  on  each  pier. 
They  are  private  detectives — a  part  of  the  wharf  force.  When  a 
ship  is  being  loaded  an  assistant  detective  is  placed  in  each  hold, 
while  others  are  stationed  at  advantageous  points  on  the  pier  to 
keep  a  watchful  eye  on  all  activities. 

This  survey  of  the  wharf  organization  is  given  here  to  serve  in 
orienting  the  newcomer,  as  was  the  purpose  of  the  preceding  chap- 
ters. Details  of  the  various  duties  and  departments  are  discussed  in 
succeeding  chapters. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  LONGSHOREMEN  * 

Longshoremen  and  the  Importance  of  Their  Work. — The 
general  public  has  only  within  the  last  year  or  two  become  aware  of 
the  meaning  of  the  term  "longshoremen"  and  the  importance  of  the 
longshoreman's  work.  The  aid  given  by  the  longshoremen  in  dis- 
patching supplies  to  France,  the  competition  between  the  different 
stevedore  units  at  the  base  ports  abroad,  and  the  succession  of 
longshore  labor  troubles  and  strikes  in  this  and  other  countries  have 
all  helped  us  to  recognize  that  a  longshoreman  is  one  who  loads  or 
unloads  ships.  This,  however,  is  not  an  exact  definition.  He  must 
be  distinguished  from  the  stevedore,  who  is  his  superintendent — or 
employer ;  from  members  of  the  crew  who  no  longer  assist  in  the 
loading  operations;  and  from  the  dock  workers  and  other  laborers 
along  the  water  front.  The  National  Adjustment  Commission  has 
defined  a  longshoreman  as  "one  who  carries  cargo  to  the  hatch  or  to 
the  ship's  side,"  but  this  definition  is  not  broad  enough,  for  long- 
shoremen also  work  on  the  deck  and  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel.  Any 
laborer  who  is  employed  for  the  purpose  of  loading  or  discharging 
ship's  cargo  is  a  longshoreman. 

There  are  perhaps  90,000  men  in  the  United  States  who  may 
properly  be  classed  as  longshoremen,  and  there  are  many  more  who 
occasionally  engage  in  longshore  work.  These  few  men  handle 
millions  of  tons  of  domestic  freight  and  over  90,000,000  tons  of 
foreign  freight  every  year;  they  are  responsible  for  the  safety  of 
more  than  ten  billion  dollars'  worth  of  exports  and  imports ;  and  yet 
they  are  an  isolated  and  unknown  group  of  our  society.  There  is 
only  one  book  about  them  and  the  author  of  that  states  that  "the 
most  conspicuous  fact  concerning  the  longshoreman  is  his  incon- 
spicuousness.  Libraries,  statistical  reports,  labor  histories  almost 
without  exception  ignore  him  or  misstate  his  case."  2 


1  By  Thomas  R.  Taylor. 

2  Barnes,   The  Longshoremen. 


55 


56  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Nationality  and  Skill. — The  group  is  made  up  very  largely  at 
the  present  time,  and  especially  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  of  Irish, 
Negroes,  and  southern  Europeans.  Negro  longshoremen  are  com- 
mon from  Galveston  to  Baltimore,  and  they  flocked  to  Philadelphia 
and  New  York  in  large  numbers  when  the  World  War  cut  off  the 
immigration  of  unskilled  labor.  At  New  York,  the  Irish  were 
employed  almost  exclusively  until  about  1887,  when  there  was  a 
great  influx  of  Italians.  Since  then,  men  of  other  races,  especially 
Jews  and  Slavs,  have  entered  the  industry  and  the  average  gang  at 
present  is  a  mixture  of  almost  all  races.  Negroes  are  ordinarily 
placed  in  groups  by  themselves,  but  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  them 
in  holds  working  with  Germans,  Greeks,  Jews,  Italians,  Austrians, 
Syrians,  and  others.  Irish  or  Americans  are  still  preferred,  for 
they  are  stronger  on  the  average,  are  less  subject  to  disease,  and 
keep  their  head  in  emergencies  and  in  the  flood  of  Bolshevist  litera- 
ture which  has  recently  swept  its  flotsam  of  trash  into  the  ears  of 
the  gullible  Negroes  and  southern  Europeans. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Irish,  the  longshore 
group  is  composed  largely  of  the  cheap,  unskilled  type  of  labor. 
The  reason  for  this  is  the  casual  nature  of  the  work  rather  than  the 
scale  of  wages  or  the  degree  of  skill  required.  The  longshoreman 
can  never  be  sure  of  steady  employment,  because  the  amount  of 
available  work  depends  altogether  upon  the  number  of  ships  in  port 
and  this  is  subject  to  great  fluctuations  from  day  to  day  or  from 
season  to  season.  The  individual  longshoreman  who  is  familiar 
perhaps  with  the  opportunities  for  work  in  only  one  part  of  the 
port,  in  which  part  there  may  be  much  greater  variation  than  shown 
for  the  port  as  a  whole,  feels  these  fluctuations  greatly.  This  is  well 
illustrated  in  New  York  where  there  are  great  distances  between 
different  sections  of  the  port.  The  longshoreman,  working  in  the 
Chelsea  section,  is  not  in  touch  with  the  opportunities  for  work  in 
Hoboken  or  Brooklyn,  and  the  steadiness  of  his  employment  depends 
almost  altogether  on  the  number  of  ships  loading  and  discharging 
at  the  Chelsea  piers.  Under  conditions  such  as  these  it  is  difficult  to 
attract  the  better  class  of  laborers  who  prefer  permanent  employ- 
ment even  if  the  daily  wage  is  less.  Consequently  the  longshore- 
men's trade  has  been  left  largely  to  the  casual,  unskilled  type.  This 
condition  will  undoubtedly  continue  as  long  as  there  is  lack  of 
permanency  about  the  work,  and  as  long  as  other  factors,  such  as 


THE  LONGSHOREMEN  57 

the  dangerous  nature  of  the  occupation,  emphasize  the  relative 
undesirability  of  the  trade. 

Classification  according  to  Skill. — The  building  up  of  a 
skilled  personnel  is  made  difficult  also  by  the  variation  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  of  the  individual  longshoremen.  Manual  skill  is 
developed  by  constant  repetition  of  one  movement  or  one  set  of 
movements,  and  the  average  longshoreman  does  not  have  the  oppor- 
tunity for  such  repetition.  He  works  on  different  piers  and  ships, 
with  different  commodities,  and  at  different  operations.  Almost 
every  day,  or  even  every  hour,  his  work  changes.  He  is  forced  to  be 
a  Jack-of-all-trades.  There  are,  however,  certain  chances  for  spe- 
cialization, and  these  have  afforded  several  bases  of  classification  of 
longshoremen  according  to  their  skill.  There  is  first  the  classifica- 
tion of  skill  according  to  the  class  of  trade  of  the  ship  being  worked. 
The  "deep-sea"  longshoremen,  who  load  and  discharge  the  cargoes  of 
ships  in  the  foreign  trade,  must  do  their  work  more  carefully  than 
those  working  on  a  coastwise  vessel,  and  they  stand  on  a  higher 
plane  and  receive  higher  wages  than  the  coastwise  worker.  The 
coastwise  worker  in  turn  ranks  higher  than  the  man  who  handles  the 
cargoes  of  harbor  craft  and  to  whom  the  term  "shenanago"  is  deri- 
sively applied. 

Classification  according  to  Trade. — There  can  be  made  a  sec- 
ond classification  based  on  the  commodity  handled.  No  skill  or 
dexterity  is  required  in  the  handling  of  some  commodities,  and  any 
man  picked  up  off  the  streets  can  learn  his  duties  in  a  few  minutes. 
The  unloading  of  bananas  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  this,  for 
this  work  consists  simply  of  passing  bunches  of  bananas  along  a 
chain  of  men.  These  men  are  considered  professionally  and  socially 
inferior  to  those  who  work  on  commodities  that  are  more  difficult  to 
transfer  or  stow.  The  loading  or  discharging  of  lumber,  grain, 
coal,  explosives,  oil,  barreled  materials,  and  of  some  other  com- 
modities requires  the  exercise  of  qualities  not  possessed  or  developed 
by  the  "banana  fiend,"  and  it  is  in  the  handling  of  these  commodi- 
ties that  we  find  longshoremen  who  may  be  properly  considered 
skilled  specialists.  A  grain  trimmer,  for  example,  may  become  so 
adept  that  he  is  in  great  demand  and  will  refuse  to  work  on  any- 
thing but  grain.  The  great  mass  of  longshoremen,  however,  handle 
general  cargo  or  bulk  cargo  indiscriminately  and  make  no  effort  to 
specialize. 


58  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Classification  according  to  Actual  Work  Performed. — 
Some  truck  goods  on  the  pier,  others  make  up  the  slings,  give  signals, 
run  the  winches  or  falls,  or  stow  goods  in  the  hold.  In  some  places 
there  are  well-defined  lines  between  these  classes.  A  pier  man  will 
stay  a  pier  man  until  he  is  promoted  to  a  higher  grade,  and  a  winch- 
man  will  operate  winches  day  after  day.  In  such  places  there  is 
opportunity  for  specialization.  At  other  ports,  however,  there 
is  little  or  no  distinction,  and  a  man  shifts  from  one  work  to 
another. 

Ways  of  Building  Up  a  Skilled  Personnel. — It  would  be 
advantageous  to  the  shipowner  if  skilled  workmen  could  be  attracted 
to,  or  developed  in,  the  trade,  for  inefficient  and  careless  work  causes 
delays  in  port  and  damages  to  cargo  and  ship.  There  are  two 
possible  ways  of  building  up  such  a  skilled  force.  One  is  to  attract 
the  better  type  of  man  by  regularizing  employment  in  paying  the 
men  on  the  monthly  or  weekly  basis  instead  of  by  the  hour  or  day, 
and  this  course  has  been  taken  by  several  steamship  companies.  The 
other  method  is  to  develop  skill  under  the  present  daily  wage  system 
by  hiring  specialists  only  for  all  work  that  requires  any  training. 
A  central  employment  agency  could  keep  all  longshoremen  listed  as 
barrel  men,  coal  trimmers,  winchmen,  etc.,  and  the  stevedore  or  pier 
superintendent  could  call  for  those  needed.  This  system  has  been 
adopted  at  several  foreign  ports  but  is  rather  consistently  opposed 
by  stevedores  in  this  country. 

Methods  of  Hiring  Longshoremen. — The  methods  of  hiring 
generally  used  in  the  United  States  are  quite  primitive.  At  New 
York  the  expected  arrival  of  a  vessel  is  heralded  by  the  hoisting  of 
a  flag  at  the  pier  at  which  it  will  dock,  and  by  a  notice  in  the  news- 
papers. Longshoremen  out  of  work  gather  outside  the  entrance  to 
the  pier  shortly  before  the  vessel  arrives  or  in  the  morning  following 
arrival.  It  is  customary  for  them  to  form  or  "shape"  in  a  semicircle 
at  the  pier  entrance.  When  the  ship  is  ready  to  work,  the  stevedore 
or  foreman  takes  a  place  within  the  "shape"  and  begins  picking  out 
men  with  whom  he  is  familiar  or  to  whom  he  is  attracted.  As  each 
man  is  called  out  he  passes  by  the  timekeeper,  gives  his  name  and 
receives  a  numbered  check.  Several  men  are  then  combined  into  a 
gang,  put  in  charge  of  a  foreman,  and  sent  to  work.  A  gang  may  be 
held  together  only  for  a  few  hours,  or  it  may  be  kept  as  long  as  there 
is  work  on  that  one  ship  or  on  several  ships.  When  a  man  is  released 


THE  LONGSHOREMEN  59 

he  gives  his  check  number  to  the  timekeeper,  but  he  does  not  sur- 
render his  check  until  he  is  paid  at  the  end  of  the  week. 

This  method  has  several  modifications.  At  Philadelphia,  for 
example,  the  men  gather  "at  the  corner"  of  Front  and  Christian 
Streets  in  the  evening,  and  are  employed  for  the  following  day.  At 
some  piers  in  New  York  men  have  been  hired  by  the  hundred  instead 
of  by  individuals  or  gangs.  Men  are  given  checks  of  the  first 
hundred,  second  hundred,  or  third  hundred,  according  to  their  ability, 
and  if  there  is  a  shortage  of  work,  the  men  holding  checks  of  the 
lowered  hundreds  will  not  be  hired. 

Whenever  men  are  hired  in  this  way  employment  is  by  the  hour 
only.  If  there  is  a  delay  in  the  receipt  of  freight  and  therefore  in 
the  loading  operations,  part  or  all  of  the  men  will  be  released.  Nor 
can  the  foreman  always  tell  them  when  to  return.  They  may  go 
home  for  the  rest  of  the  day,  seek  work  elsewhere,  or  stay  near  the 
pier  entrance  in  the  hope  that  they  will  be  wanted. 

To  overcome  this  undesirable  situation  some  companies  with 
regular  sailings  have  tried  the  method  of  employing  men  by  the 
week  or  month.  In  some  cases  this  has  worked  very  satisfactorily, 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  more  companies  will  find  it  a  plan 
convenient  to  adopt. 

Gang  Work. — It  would  also  be  beneficial  to  hold  the  gangs 
intact  as  much  as  possible.  A  gang  is  a  group  of  longshoremen 
working  as  a  unit  in  handling  cargo  through  one  hatch.  If  the  same 
men  work  together  constantly,  they  will  grow  accustomed  to  one 
another  and  there  will  be  a  development  of  teamwork. 

The  size  of  the  gang  and  the  distribution  of  its  members  depend 
upon  many  factors,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  kind  of 
cargo,  and  whether  the  cargo  is  being  loaded  or  discharged.  In  the 
loading  of  general  cargo  the  average  size  of  the  gang  is  from  18  to 
24  men.  Approximately  one-half  of  these  will  be  in  the  hold  stow- 
ing the  goods ;  three  to  five  will  be  on  deck  running  the  winches, 
handling  the  falls,  and  giving  signals;  and  the  remainder  will  be 
on  the  pier,  trucking  the  freight  to  the  picking-up  place  and  making 
up  the  drafts.  In  the  discharge  of  general  cargo  the  gang  is  about 
the  same  size,  but  more  men  (approximately  one-half  of  the  total) 
are  placed  on  the  pier,  trucking,  sorting,  and  filling  the  consign- 
ments. In  either  case,  however,  the  size  will  vary  with  the  progress 
of  the  work,  with  the  character  of  the  ship  and  its  transfer  equip- 


60  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

ment,  with  the  nature  of  the  cargo,  and  with  other  factors.  When 
loading  has  just  begun,  the  distances  in  the  hold  are  relatively  great 
and  more  men  can  be  accommodated  and  are  required  to  move  and 
stow  the  goods  than  when  the  hold  is  nearly  full.  If  the  holds  and 
hatches  are  large  and  the  transfer  equipment  is  adequate,  more  men 
can  be  placed  in  a  gang,  or  two  or  three  gangs  can  be  worked  at  one 
hatch.  Machinery  to  handle  the  goods  on  the  pier  or  between  the 
pier  and  the  vessel  will  allow  for  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  men 
on  the  pier  and  deck.  The  kind  of  cargo,  of  course,  has  a  great 
influence.  Bulk  cargo  is  handled  so  largely  by  machinery  that  the 
size  of  the  loading  gang  may  be  reduced  to  two  or  three  men,  this 
being  particularly  true  of  those  commodities  that  do  not  have  to  be 
trimmed  or  moved  in  any  way  after  they  are  put  in  the  hold.  Other 
kinds  of  cargo,  such  as  railroad  rails,  may  require  a  large  amount  of 
labor  on  the  pier  and  deck  and  relatively  little  in  the  hold.  Still 
others,  such  as  cotton  which  is  compressed  in  the  hold  by  screwing, 
require  an  exceptionally  large  number  of  men  in  the  hold. 

For  these  reasons  it  is  impossible  to  state  what  is  the  proper  size 
of  a  gang  or  how  its  members  should  be  distributed.  But  it  seems 
clear  that  there  should  be  greater  standardization  than  is  found  at 
present.  Standards  have  been  established  only  by  those  piers  where 
the  work  varies  but  little,  as  where  uniform  package  freight,  such 
as  sugar  or  case  oil,  is  handled  day  after  day.  At  other  places  there 
is  almost  no  approach  to  standardization,  and  it  will  be  found  that 
the  loading  gangs  of  general  cargo  at  different  ports  or  even  at 
adjacent  piers  differ  greatly.  It  is  also  noticeable  that  few  gangs 
work  at  top  efficiency;  there  is  almost  always  a  congestion  at  one 
point  and  a  slackening  up  of  effort  at  others.  If  the  stevedore  would 
seriously  attack  the  problem  by  keeping  time  study  records  of  the 
speed  of  loading  and  discharging  with  gangs  of  different  sizes  and 
make-up,  he  would  undoubtedly  be  surprised  at  the  savings  that 
could  be  made  by  standardization. 

Barnes  gives  the  following  concerning  the  hatch  gangs. 

In  loading,  the  number  of  men  in  the  hold  is  greater  than  on  the 
pier.  In  discharging,  more  men  are  needed  on  the  pier.  On  the 
White  Star  piers,  for  instance,  in  discharging,  6  men  of  each 
hatch  gang  are  worked  in  the  hold,  5  to  6  on  deck,  and  12  on  the 
pier.  In  loading,  6  of  the  pier  men  are  transferred  to  the  hold. 


THE  LONGSHOREMEN 


61 


But  from  pier  to  pier  the  numbers  vary.     On  the  Brooklyn  piers 
14  men  often  constitute  a  hatch  gang. 

Speaking  generally,  however,  one  can  say  that  there  are  usually 
from  18  to  23  men  to  a  hatch  gang.  There  are  usually  from  9  to 
12  men  on  the  pier — 2  or  3  "slingers,"  who  fasten  the  slings  around 

ORGANIZATION  OF  HATCH  GANGS3 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  MEN  IN  GANGS  AT  NINE  CHELSEA  PIERS 


Line 

Piers 

Men 
in 
gang 

Men  working 

On  the  pier 

On 
deck 

In  the  hold 

Un- 
load- 
ing 

Load- 
ing 

Un- 
load- 
ing 

Load- 
ing 

White   Star  Line  

2 

3 

i 
i 
i 
i 

23-24 

25-27 
23-24 

20-21 

23 
21-23 

12 
IO-I2 
12 
11-12 
12 
10-12 

6 
8-10 
6 
7-8 
6 
6-8 

5-6 

5-6 
4 
5 

5 

6 

8 
6 
4-6 
6 
6 

12 
IO-I2 
12 

8-10 

12 
IO 

Cunard  Line 

Red  Star  Line 

Atlantic  Transport  Line.. 
French    Line 

American  Line 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  MEN  IN  GANGS  AT  NINE  HOBOKEN  PIERS 


Piers 

Men 
in 
gang 

Men  working 

On  the  pier 

On 
deck 

In  the  hold 

Un- 
load- 
ing 

Load- 
ing 

Un- 
load- 
ing 

6-7 
6-7 

4-6 
4-6 

Load- 
ing 

8-10 

8-12 

4-8 
6-8 
6-1  o 

Hamburg-American  Line  . 
North  German  Lloyd  Line 
Holland  America  Line  
Phoenix  Line  

3 
3 

i 
i 

i 

18-24 
20-25 
1  6-1  8 
15-20 
18-22 

8-12 

10-14 
8-10 
6-1  o 
8-10 

6-1  o 
6-1  o 

4-6 
4-8 
6-8 

3-5 
3-5 
3-4 
3-5 
4-5 

Scandinavian  Line  

the  drafts,  and  the  rest  for  trucking  and  tiering  up ;  from  4  to  6  on 
deck — including  the  gangway  man,  winchman,  drum-end  man,  and 
"hooker-on" ;  and,  including  the  headers  or  hold  foremen,  6  or  8  men 
in  the  hold. 

Where  the  character  of  the  cargo  or  restricted  space  on  the  piei 
necessitates  high  stacking — often  18  feet  or  even  higher — additional 
men  for  tiering  up  are  employed.  In  the  old  days  when  piers  were 
small  the  stacks  were  frequently  carried  to  the  roof.  But  there  is 


3  Barnes,  The  Longshoremen,  32,  33. 


62  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

not  so  much  need  for  high  tiering  on  the  large  modern  piers,  such  as 
those  of  the  Chelsea  Improvement. 

The  congestion  on  some  of  the  piers  is  often  relieved  by  storing 
cargo  on  the  "farm."  4  One  of  the  sights  of  the  water  front  is  this 
space  thickly  covered  with  heavy  casks,  bales,  or  logs,  and  with 
streets  and  narrow  lanes  giving  access  to  the  piers  between  the  piles 
of  freight. 

Considerations  of  economy  often  cause  the  number  of  men  em- 
ployed on  a  particular  job  to  be  reduced  below  the  point  of  safety. 
This  is  most  often  the  case  when  the  work  is  done  by  contracting 
stevedores.  For  instance,  when  only  four  men  are  employed  on 
deck,  the  gangway  man  may  have  to  act  as  hooker-on.  Sometimes 
the  same  man  is  required  to  turn  on  the  steam  for  a  winch  and  to 
act  as  drum-end  man. 

Another  practice  even  more  dangerous,  is  due  to  the  effort  to 
economize  time.  When  a  ship  is  being  rushed,  two  or  even  three 
gangs  are  sometimes  worked  in  the  same  hatch.  How  inevitably 
either  of  these  forms  of  economy  invites  accidents  will  appear  as  the 
description  of  the  work  proceeds. 

There  is  throughout  longshore  work  a  swing  and  rhythm,  as 
well  as  a  shared  responsibility.  The  gangs  must  work  as  a  unit 
if  the  maximum  amount  is  to  be  accomplished.  Rhythm  is  attained 
as  soon  as  the  gangs  are  settled  at  the  work. 

Unions. — The  irregularity  of  employment  in  the  longshore 
industry  not  only  has  brought  a  relatively  poor  type  of  workman 
into  the  trade  but  has  caused  an  interchange  of  unskilled  and  semi- 
skilled laborers  with  other  industries.  In  slack  periods  longshore- 
men would  go  into  other  work,  and  in  busy  periods,  men  engaged 
in  other  trades,  or  unemployed,  would  drift  into  the  ranks  of  the 
longshoremen.  All  of  this  has  made  it  difficult  for  the  longshore- 
men to  establish  and  maintain  a  strong  union,  especially  in  New 
York,  where  the  history  of  attempts  to  unionize  shows  an  almost 
continuous  succession  of  failures.  The  situation  at  Roston  has 

4  According  to  tradition  on  the  water  front,  the  origin  of  this  term  is 
as  follows: 

Walsh  Brothers,  once  the  most  important  stevedores  of  the  port,  had 
at  one  time  a  foreman  named  Morris  Walsh,  who  had  been  a  farmer  in 
Ireland.  Among  the  men  he  became  known  as  the  "farmer."  His  particular 
work  was  to  supervise  the  storing  of  goods  on  the  open  space  in  front  of 
the  piers.  Men  used  to  say:  "I'm  going  out  to  work  with  the  farmer,"  or 
"on  the  farm."  Gradually  the  open  space  in  front  of  any  pier  became 
known  as  the  "farm." 


THE  LONGSHOREMEN  63 

always  been  more  favorabk  to  the  longshoremen  and  a  relatively 
strong  local  union  was  built  up  early.  During  the  last  few  years, 
maintenance  of  locals  at  all  ports,  including  New  York,  and  of  the 
national  union  has  been  rendered  easier  by  the  affiliation  with  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  and  by  the  scarcity  of  labor.  Large 
initiation  fees  to  the  union  are  charged  and  must  be  paid  by  men 
who  enter  the  trade,  so  that  the  members  are  now  protected  from  the 
floating  laborer. 

The  present  situation  is  described  by  the  Director  of  the  Marine 
and  Dock  Industrial  Relations  Division,  United  States  Shipping 
Board,  as  follows: 

The  International  Longshoremen's  Association  was  started  on 
the  Great  Lakes  some  thirty  years  ago.  It  was  at  first  restricted  to 
men  handling  lumber. 

At  the  present  fime  the  association  has  grown  to  a  point  where 
it  includes  in  its  locals  every  type  of  labor  connected  with  the 
loading  and  unloading  of  ships,  and  extends  geographically  over 
almost  the  entire  country.  Besides  the  men  who  actually  load  and 
unload  vessels,  it  represents  marine  warehouse  freight  handlers, 
grain-elevator  employees,  dock  and  marine  engineers,  stationary  dock 
hoisters,  marine  repair  men  and  firemen,  licensed  tug  men,  tug  fire- 
men and  linemen,  marine  divers,  helpers,  tenders,  and  steam-pump 
operators,  dredge  engineers  and  cranemen,  drill-boat  workers,  dredge 
firemen  and  laborers  on  dredge  scows,  marine  pile  drivers,  lumber 
inspectors,  tallymen  and  lumber  handlers,  top-deck  men,  cotton  and 
tobacco  screw  men,  general  cargo  deck  laborers,  and  pool-deck  hands 
and  fishermen. 

MEMBERSHIP  BY  DISTRICTS  OF  INTERNATIONAL  LONGSHOREMEN'S 
ASSOCIATION 


District 

Number 
of 
Locals 

Number 
of 
Members 

Atlantic    Coast    

QJ. 

41  ooo 

South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  

62 

1  8  600 

Great   Lakes        

1  66 

14  ooo 

Pacific  Coast   

e.4 

22  OOO 

I 

* 

Total        

•377 

QC  6OO 

*  Not  given. 


64  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

The  foregoing  table  shows  an  association  membership  of  95,600, 
distributed  among  377  local  unions. 

The  association  includes  Canada,  as  well  as  the  United  States, 
and  is  affiliated  with  the  American  Federation  of  Labor.  As  indi- 
cated above,  it  includes  among  its  affiliated  locals  various  unions  of 
dock  and  even  marine  employees,  which  because  of  their  large  num- 
ber are  not  listed  in  this  report.  The  president  is  T.  V.  O'Connor,  of 
Buffalo.  The  secretary  is  John  J.  Joyce,  also  of  Buffalo. 

Wages. — During  the  period  of  weakness  of  the  union  the  at- 
tempts that  were  made  to  increase  wages  were  unsuccessful.  The 
hourly  base  rate  for  general  cargo  work  on  foreign  vessels  at  New 
York  dropped  from  40  cents  in  1865  to  3°  cents  in  1875  and  to  25 
cents  in  1890.  From  that  point  there  were  two  increases  to  33  cents 
in  1915,  and  within  the  last  few  years  there  have  been  several  large 
increases  to  80  cents.  This  wage  enables  unskilled,  as  well  as  skilled 
laborers,  to  earn  $8  a  day  and,  since  employment  is  more  regular 
than  formerly,  the  longshoreman  need  not  be  greatly  concerned 
over  the  high  cost  of  living. 

All  disputes  over  wages  and  other  matters  have,  since  1917,  been 
settled  under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Adjustment  Commission, 
which  was  formed  in  that  year  by  representatives  of  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board,  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Secretary  of  Labor, 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  the  International  Longshoremen's 
Association,  and  the  principal  shipping  operators  on  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  coasts.  The  operators  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  the  Great 
Lakes  later  adopted  the  agreement  with  some  modifications.  This 
commission  not  only  made  local  awards  but  successfully  sought  to 
establish  wage  uniformity  between  the  different  sections.  Tables 
that  follow  show  the  present  wage  rate  for  deep-sea  and  coastwise 
workers  in  the  different  sections.  For  the  North  Atlantic  ports  this 
rate  is  paid  pier  men  and,  in  most  instances,  hold  men;  but  at 
Norfolk  and  the  South  Atlantic  ports  the  rate  applies  only  to  hold 
men  and  the  late  for  pier  men  is  lower.  The  Pacific  Coast  rates  have 
been  regulated  very  largely  by  independent  action  of  the  shipping 
operators  and  the  longshore  union,  and  are  undergoing  change  at 
the  present  time. 

At  all  ports  there  are  differentials  for  overtime ;  for  work  on 

5  "Marine  and  Dock  Labor,"  85,  86.  The  membership  figures  shown 
should  be  accepted  with  caution. 


THE  LONGSHOREMEN 


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THE  LONGSHOREMEN  67 

holidays,  during  meal  hours,  and  at  night ;  and  for  handling  certain 
commodities.  These  differentials  are  indicated  in  the  stevedore  rates 
shown  on  page  20. 

Working  Conditions  and  Their  Betterment.— Now  that 
wages  have  been  advanced  to  such  a  point  that  the  longshoreman 
can  live  comfortably  or  more  than  comfortably,  it  is  noted  that  the 
members  of  the  union  are  making  more  determined  efforts  to  improve 
their  working  conditions.  This  is  but  natural  and  proper,  consider- 
ing the  conditions  under  which  they  have  worked  in  the  past. 
Unquestionably  the  life  of  the  average  longshoreman  is  hard.  He  is 
never  sure  of  work  for  more  than  a  few  days  in  advance.  He  must 
lift  and  carry  weights  of  from  100  to  300  pounds.  He  is  exposed 
to  the  cold  winter  storms,  the  burning  summer  sun,  and  the  suffo- 
cating heat  of  the  holds.  He  is  more  subject  than  workmen  in  most 
industries  to  such  diseases  as  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  bronchitis, 
and  rheumatism,  and  is  frequently  laid  up  by  sickness.  His  is  a 
particularly  hazardous  trade  as  shown  by  the  insurance  rates  charged 
in  this  and  other  countries.  Accidents  are  common  because  of  defec- 
tive gear,  lack  of  adequate  safeguards,  lack  of  supervision  over  the 
methods  of  work,  and  the  necessity  for  handling  dangerous  articles. 
He  may  have  to  work  continuously  for  long  periods,  or  he  may  have 
to  stand  in  rain  or  snow  near  the  pier  entrance  waiting  for  work. 
Rest  rooms,  lunch  rooms,  and  sanitary  lavatories  are  almost 
unknown. 

It  will  be  difficult  to  correct  all  these  conditions ;  but  there  should 
be  no  delay  in  making  a  start.  The  most  necessary  reform  is  that 
of  regularizing  the  work.  The  creation  of  a  central  employment 
and  paying  bureau,  modeled  somewhat  after  the  systems  used  at 
Liverpool,  London,  and  elsewhere,  is  not  impossible,  though  it  is 
not  feasible  at  present,  owing  to  general  opposition  to  the  plan. 
Such  a  bureau  would  be  of  benefit  to  shipping  operators  and  long- 
shoremen alike  because  the  methods  of  hiring,  paying  off,  and  collec- 
tion of  insurance  would  be  greatly  simplified.  Beneficial  results 
would  also  follow  from  the  wider  adoption  of  the  weekly  wage 
system,  although  it  must  be  recognized  that  most  stevedores  must 
continue  to  pay  their  men  on  the  hourly  basis.  The  longshoremen 
are  taking  the  matter  of  overwork  into  their  own  hands  and  are 
refusing  to  carry  heavy  weights  or  to  work  continuously  for  long 
stretches.  Moreover,  there  is  a  greater  installation  of  machinery  to 


68  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

assist  in  the  movement  and  transfer  of  freight.  Protection  against 
exposure  to  the  elements  and  against  accidents  should  be  afforded 
in  every  possible  way.  The  pier  superintendent  and  stevedore  must 
recognize  that  a  system  of  work  which  permits  the  breakdown  in 
youth  of  strong  men  and  the  crippling  of  others  by  accident  and 
disease  is  wasteful,  as  well  as  criminal.  It  is  as  much  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  stevedore  as  to  the  factory  owner  to  install  safety  appli- 
ances and  to  provide  decent  working  conditions.  The  cost  of  sun 
shades  and  wind  breaks  for  deck  men,  strong  ropes  for  the  falls, 
lighting  of  the  hold,  brakes  on  the  winches,  and  similar  protective 
measures  are  small  in  comparison  with  the  value  of  the  hundreds 
of  lives  annually  sacrificed^  because  of  that  conservatism  in  the 
shipping  work  which  does  not  permit  the  adoption  of  modern  methods. 
National  Adjustment  Commission  Award. — In  conclusion 
of  this  chapter  the  National  Adjustment  Commission's  award  of 
October  3,  1918,  is  here  added  as  an  example  of  the  nature  of  agree- 
ments between  longshoremen  and  steamship  companies.  It  is  under- 
stood, of  course,  that  this  agreement  has  since  been  modified,  par- 
ticularly as  to  rates  of  pay  and  some  details.  The  object  in 
introducing  it  here  is  to  show  the  general  terms  of  this  and  similar 
agreements  with  the  admonition  to  look  up  the  last  agreement  for 
any  working  information. 

NATIONAL  ADJUSTMENT  COMMISSION 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  October  3,  1918. 

The  International  Longshoremen's 
Association  and  Affiliated  Locals 

PETITIONING  PARTIES:  at  ports  of  New  York;  Boston; 

Baltimore ;    Norfolk    and    New- 
port News. 

Deep-water    Steamship    Companies 

OTHER  PARTIES  INTERESTED  :  and  Stevedores   representing  the 

above  ports. 

Readjustment  of  wages  and  work- 
ing conditions  of  longshore  labor 
at  the  above  mentioned  ports, 

SUBJECT:  submitted    under    the    National 

Adjustment    Commission    agree- 
ment. 


THE  LONGSHOREMEN  69 

AWARD 

The  question  of  readjustment  of  wages  and  working  conditions  of 
longshore  labor  in  connection  with  deep-water  vessels  at  the  ports  of 
New  York,  Boston,  Baltimore,  Norfolk,  and  Newport  News  was 
considered  by  the  National  Adjustment  Commission  at  meetings 
convening  at  New  York  City,  September  30,  1918,  and  reconvening 
Tuesday,  October  i,  1918,  and  October  2,  1918,  and  after  hearing 
the  parties  ancftheir  testimony  the  Commission  awards,  as  follows : 

First. — The  basic  working  day  of  eight  (8)  hours  with  Satur- 
day half  holiday,  is  hereby  established. 

Second. — On  general  cargo  from  8  A.  M.  to  12  o'clock  noon,  of 
all  week  days,  and  from  i  to  5  p.  M.  on  all  week  days,  exclusive  of 
Saturday,  men  shall  receive  sixty-five  cents  (65c)  an  hour. 

Third. — All  other  time  shall  be  counted  and  paid  for  at  the  rate 
of  one  dollar  ($1)  per  hour. 

Fourth. — When  men  are  ordered  out  for  work  beginning  Sunday 
morning,  they  shall  be  hired  in  regular  gangs  before  5  p.  M.  on  the 
Saturday  preceding. 

Fifth. — When  men  are  ordered  out  to  work  and  do  not  start, 
EXCEPT  when  the  men  refuse  to  start  owing  to  weather  conditions, 
the  men  shall  be  paid  for  two  (2)  hours  at  the  prevailing  rate. 

Sixth. — All  differentials  in  rates  of  pay  shall  be  maintained 
according  to  the  agreements  now  in  force  or  expiring  in  the  various 
ports. 

Seventh. — Except  as  herein  otherwise  provided,  all  other  terms 
and  conditions  at  the  several  ports  mentioned  shall  remain  as  pro- 
vided by  the  several  agreements  now  in  force  or  expiring  at  each  port. 
Eighth. — This  award  shall  become  effective  for  the  ports  of  New 
York,  Boston,  Baltimore,  Norfolk,  and  Newport  News,  as  of  October 
l,  1918,  and  shall  remain  in  effect  until  and  including  September 
30,  1919,  unless  the  National  Adjustment  Commission  of  its  own 
motion,  upon  grounds  of  National  policy,  shall  sooner  reopen  and 
modify  the  terms  thereof. 

(Signed)     JOHN  G.  PALFREY,  representing  Shipping  Board, 

Acting  Chairman, 
EDWARD   J.    BARBER,    representing   Deepwater    S.    S. 

Employers, 

T.  V.  O'CONNOR,  representing  I.  L.  A. 
JOHN  R.  McLANE,  representing  War  Department. 


7o  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

MEMORANDUM  OF  AGREEMENT 

THIS  AGREEMENT,  made  and  entered  into  by  and  between  the 
undersigned  DEEP-WATER  STEAMSHIP  LINES  and  CONTRACTING 
STEVEDORES  of  the  Port  of  Greater  New  York  and  vicinity,  as  party 
of  the  first  part,  and  THE  INTERNATIONAL  LONGSHOREMEN'S  ASSO- 
CIATION and  ITS  AFFILIATED  LOCALS,  as  party  of  the  second  part — 
is  meant  to  cover  the  loading  and  unloading  of  ships  and  the 
bunkering  of  same  in  the  Port  of  Greater  New  York  and  vicinity, 
in  accordance  with  the  award  of  the  National  Adjustment  Com- 
mission, dated  New  York,  October  3,  1918,  copy  of  which  is  attached 
hereto. 

1.  Members  of  the  party  of  the  second  part  to  have  the  prefer- 
ence of  all  work  pertaining  to  the  rigging  up  of  the  ships  and  coaling 
of  same  as  is  done  at  the  present  time,  and  the  discharging  and  load- 
ing of  all  cargoes  under  the  following  terms  and  conditions  : 

WAGE  SCALE 

2.  (a)     The  basic  working  day  of  eight  (8)  hours  with  Satur- 
day half  holiday,  is  hereby  established. 

(b)  On  general  cargo  from  8  A.  M.  to  12  o'clock  noon,  of  all 
week  days,  and  from  l   to  5  p.  M.  on  all  week  days,  exclusive  of 
Saturday,  men  shall  receive  sixty-five  cents  (65c)  an  hour. 

(c)  All  other  time  shall  be  counted  and  paid  for  at  the  rate  of 
one  dollar  ($1)  per  hour. 

(d)  Legal  Holidays  are :  New  Year's  Day,  Lincoln's  Birthday, 
Washington's  Birthday,  Good  Friday  on  the  Jersey  Shore,  Decora- 
tion Day,  Fourth  of  July,  Labor  Day,  Columbus  Day,  Election  Day, 
Thanksgiving,  Christmas,  and  such  other  National  or  State  holidays 
as  may  be  appointed  by  Executive  Authority. 

(e)  Men  employed  on  bulk  cargo,  ballast,  and  all  coal  cargoes, 
including  loading  and  trimming  coal  for  a  steamer's  own  bunker  pur- 
poses, to  receive  seventy  cents  (yoc)  per  hour  between  the  hours  of 
8  A.  M.  and  12  o'clock  noon,  and  from  l  to  5  p.  M.,  except  Saturday, 
when  the  workday  shall  be  from  8  A.  M.  to  12  o'clock  noon.    All  other 
time  to  be  considered  as  overtime  and  paid  for  at  one  dollar  and  five 
cents  ($1.05)  per  hour. 

(f)  Men  are  to  work  any  night  of  the  week  or  Sunday  when 
required.    Work  performed  on  Saturday  night  only  to  finish  ship  for 
sailing  Sunday,  or  to  handle  mail  or  baggage. 


THE  LONGSHOREMEN  71 

(g)  Only  baggage  and  mail  to  be  handled  on  Labor  Day,  at  one 
dollar  ($i)  per  hour. 

3.  (a)  When  men  are  handling  explosives  down  the  Bay 
the  following  scale  to  apply: 


Day  Work 
Per  hour 

Holidays,    Sunday    and 
Afternoon  Saturday 
per  hour 

8  A.  M.  to  12  noon  ) 

$1.30   . 

$2  OO 

I    P.    M.   tO     5    P.    M.    } 

I    A.    M.   tO      6    A.    M.    1 
7   A.    M.    tO      8    A.    M.    1 

$2.00  

$2.OO 

5    P.    M.    tO      6    P.    M.    1 

7  p.  M.  to  12  midn't  J 

6    A.    M.    tO    7    A.    M.   1 

Noon       to   i   p.   M    I 

$2.60 

$2.60 

6    P.    M.    to    7    P.    M.    1 

12  midn't  to  i  A.  M.  J 

Time  to  start  from  the  time  of  leaving  pier  until  the  time  of  re- 
turn to  pier.  Men  to  supply  their  own  meals,  but  fifty  cents  (50c) 
per  meal  to  be  allowed  by  the  employers. 

(b)  Explosives  such  as  are  customarily  handled  down  the  Bay 
when  handled  at  any  pier,  shall  be  paid  for  double  time.     If  dis- 
pute arises  as  to  what  explosives  are,  it  shall  be  settled  by  the  Bureau 
of  Explosives,  whose  decision  shall  be  final  and  accepted  by  both 
sides. 

(c)  That  the  rates  in  Class  2  are  to  apply  on  general  cargo 
of  every  description,  including  barrel  oil  when  part  of  general  cargo. 

Kerosene,  gasoline  and  naphtha  in  cases,  when  loaded  by  case  oil 
gangs,  or  with  a  fly,  to  pay  eighty-five  cents  (85c)  per  hour.  All 
other  time  to  be  one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  ($1.25)  per  hour. 

4.  Every  effort  will  be  made  to  arrange  for  the  men  to  receive 
their  wages  at  a  locality  as  convenient  as  possible  to  the  place  at 
which  they  have  performed  the  work. 

5.  (a)     When  men  are  ordered  out  for  work  beginning  Sunday 
morning,  they  shall  be  hired  in  regular  gangs  before  5  p.  M.  on 
the  Saturday  preceding. 

(b)  When  men  are  ordered  out  to  work  and  do  not  start, 
EXCEPT  when  the  men  refuse  to  start  owing  to  weather  conditions, 
the  men  shall  be  paid  for  two  (2)  hours  at  the  prevailing  rate. 

6.  The  stevedore  is  to  hire  the  men.     No  hiring  to  be  done  by 
hatch  bosses,  but  the  stevedore  may  authorize   the  under  foreman 
to  do  so. 


72  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

7.  When  men  are  knocked  off  work  fifteen  minutes  after  the 
hour  or  later  they  are  to  be  paid  for  one-half  hour.     If  they  knock 
off  forty-five  minutes  after  the  hour  they  are  to  be  paid  for  one 
hour. 

8.  When  it  would  take  more  than  ten  minutes  to  replace  the 
hatch  covers  the  gangs  are   to  be  knocked  off  ten  minutes  before 
quitting  time. 

9.  No  chemicals  improperly  packed   or  in   any  but  first-class 
shipping  condition  are  to  be  accepted  or  loaded  on  board  ship.     If 
any  question  arises  regarding  the  condition  of  this  class  of  cargo,  the 
matter  to  be  left  to  the  proper  authority,  whose  decision  will  be 
final. 

10.  If  a  ship  has  been  on  fire  or  ashore,  all  cargo  damaged  by 
either  fire  or  water  is  to  be  handled  at  the  rates  under  clause  3,  but 
sound  cargo  in  a  separate  compartment  is  to  be  handled  at  the  rates 
under  clause  2.     When  rubbers  are  required  for  handling  wet  cargo 
or  explosives,  or  leather  hand  pads  or  gloves  for  barb  wire,  they 
shall  be  provided  by  the  stevedore  or  company. 

11.  The  steamer  is  to  supply  suitable  protection  for  men  work- 
ing on  deck  in  bad  weather. 

12.  It  is  expressly  understood  and  agreed  that  in  case  of  dispute, 
no  stoppage  of  work  shall  occur  under  any  circumstances,  and  that 
any  dispute  arising  under  this  agreement  which  cannot  be  imme- 
diately settled  by  arbitration  shall  be  referred  to  the  Local  Adjust- 
ment Commission,  appointed  by  the  authorities  in  Washington,  and 
if  the  matter  cannot  be  adjusted  by  said  Commission,  it  shall  be  re- 
ferred  to   the   National   Adjustment   Commission   in   Washington, 
whose  decision  shall  be  final. 

13.  There  shall  be  no  beer  or  other  intoxicating  liquor  brought 
upon  the  property  of  the  party  of  xthe  first  part.    For  a  violation  of 
this  clause  the  guilty  party  may  be  discharged  and  given  no  further 
employment  by  the  party  of  the  first  part.     It  is  clearly  agreed  that 
no  men  are  to  be  allowed  to  leave  the  pier  during  working  hours  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  drink,  or  for  any  purpose  whatever  except 
with  the   express  permission  of   the   foreman   stevedore   in  charge. 
The  steamship  companies  agree  to  supply  proper  drinking  water  on 
pier,  also  adequate  and  cleanly  toilet  facilities. 

14.  The  party  of  the  second  part  will  not  try  to  uphold  incom- 
petency,  shirking  of  work,  pilfering  or  poaching  of  cargo;  any  man 
guilty  of  the  above  offenses  shall  be  dealt  with  as  the  party  of  the 
first  part   sees   fit,  or   as   the   circumstances   may   require.      If   any 
man  is  convicted  of  theft,  he  shall  be  expelled  from  the  union. 


,      THE  LONGSHOREMEN  73 

15.  There  shall  be  no  discrimination  by  the  party  of  the  first 
part  against  any  member  of  the  party  of  the  second  part,  nor  shall 
the  party  of  the  second  part  discriminate  against  the  party  of  the 
first  part. 

16.  All  conditions  of  labor,  including  the  number  of  men  in 
holds  for  loading  and  discharging,  not  herein  mentioned,  to  remain 
as  at  present. 

17.  When  the  party  of  the  second  part  cannot  furnish  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  men  to  perform  the  work  in  a  satisfactory  manner, 
then  the  party  of  the  first  part  may  employ  such  other  men  as  are 
available. 

18.  Men  working  on  piers  on  the  North  and  East  Rivers  above 
Seventy-fifth  Street,  or  on  piers  at  Weehawken,  West  New  York, 
Yonkers,  Long  Island  City,  Staten  Island,  and  Bayonne  to  receive 
not  more  than  sixty-five  cents  (65c)  per  day  to  cover  time  and  ex- 
penses going  to  and  from  place  of  employment,  it  being  understood 
that  the  discretion  as  to  the  actual  traveling  time  required  by  the 
man  in  each  instance  shall  be  left  in  the  hands  of  the  employer. 

19.  A  copy  of  this  agreement  to  be  filed  with  the  War  Depart- 
ment,   United    States    Shipping    Board,    and    National   Adjustment 
Commission,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

20.  THIS  AGREEMENT  will  go  into  effect  October  l,  1918,  and 
will  remain  in  full  force  and  effect  until  September  30,  1919,  unless 
the    National    Adjustment    Commission    of    its    own    motion,    upon 
grounds  of  National   policy,   shall   sooner   reopen   and  modify  the 
terms  thereon. 

Signed  for  Employers. 

Signed  for  International  Longshoremen's  Association. 

REFERENCES 

BARNES,  C.  B.,  The  Longshoremen.     The  Survey  Association,  New 

York,  1915. 
"Report  of  the  Chairman  of  the  National  Adjustment  Commission  for 

1917."     Government  Printing  Office. 
"Marine  and  Dock  Labor."     Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Marine  and 

Dock  Industrial  Relations  Division,  United  States  Shipping  Board. 

Government  Printing  Office,  1919. 
TAYLOR,   THOMAS  R.   "Stowage  of   Ship  Cargoes. 

1  Miscellaneous  Series  No.  92,  Bureau  of  Foreign   and  Domestic  Com- 
merce.    Government  Printing  Office,  1920. 


CHAPTER  V 

ACCOUNTING  AND  PAPER  WORK1 

Nearly  every  one  of  our  four  million  officers  and  men  in  the 
World  War  learned  what  the  army  term  "paper  work"  (P.W.) 
means.  It  is  a  terse  expression  in  any  organization  for  all  the  slips, 
reports,  forms,  receipts,  and  other  papers  that  are  necessary  to  keep 
an  orderly  record  and  account  of  the  business.  The  paper  work  on 
a  wharf  handling  millions  of  dollars  of  merchandise  is  very  impor- 
tant, To  do  it  justice  would  require  at  least  a  volume  of  the  size 
of  this  one.  Such  a  work  has  yet  to  be  written.  This  chapter  will 
endeavor  to  show  the  chief  forms  and  the  reasons  for  them. 


STEAMSHIP  ACCOUNTING 

The  wharf  paper  work  must  be  in  harmony  with  the  accounting 
system  of  the  line  and,  therefore,  a  knowledge  of  the  outstanding 
features  of  that  system  is  necessary  on  the  wharf. 

Steamship  accounting  is  based  upon  "the  voyage  account"  and 
the  "general  expense  account."  The  former  is  similar  to  the  con- 
tract or  job  account  in  constructing  companies  such  as  elevator 
builders,  engineering  contractors,  etc.  The  general  expense  account 
contains  those  items  that  cannot  be  assigned  as  part  of  the  expense 
of  carrying  out  a  particular  contract.  Figures  3  and  4  illustrate  the 
divisions  without  very  much  explanation. 

The  Voyage  Account. — The  accounting  begins  with  the  voyage, 
as  this  adventure,  with  others,  is  the  reason  for  being  in  business. 
The  receipts  from  each  voyage,  less  the  expenses  for  that  voyage, 
determine  if  the  voyage  was  a  profitable  venture.  Every  item  of 
receipt  or  expense  that  can  be  logically  assigned  to  a  particular 
voyage  is  put  into  the  voyage  account.  There  are  many  expenses, 
however,  that  go  on  just  the  same  regardless  of  whether  this  par- 

*By  R.  S.  MacElwee. 

74 


VOYAGE  ACCOUNT        * 

y 

5.  5  .....                Voy.             _      y 

7.^                                                              101 

~rofn  
\rrived- 

>/       . 

__  191..-. 
191 

Receipts 

WEST 

EAST 

TOTAL 

PASSENGER 

FREIGHT 

VINE.  ETC. 

^inynRrpe. 

Gaoss  VOVAOI  EAjuroros 

Disbursements 

WEST  BOUND 

EAST  BOUND 

Europe 

America 

America 

Europe 

PASSENGER 

* 

2.     WAGES 

3.     AGENT'S  COMMISSIONS 

4.     HEAD  TAX 

8.    TRANSFER  CHARGES 

10.     SUPPLIES 

10 

It 

12.     INSURANCE  ON  PASSAG8  MONEY 

12 

13.     INCIDENTALS 

13 

14. 

14 

Total 

19.     SUB-AGENT'SCOMM'S(1VU*.«WI™,r«,«, 

19 

FREIGHT 

LOADING  AND  DISCHARGING  CARGO 
31.    Graia                                        Overtime  Included 

31 

32.    Cattle                                             Wtit.    E.st. 

32 

33.     Fresb  Meat                           Eur. 

33 

34.    Labor                                  '  Am. 

34 

35.     Moving  Cargo  on  Pier 

35 

36.    Cooperage                          L 

36 

37.     Customs  and  Harbor  Dnes 

37 

~   33.    Alterations  and  Repairs 

38 

39.    Towage  and  Lighterage 

39 

|     40.    Wharf  Employees 

40 

41.    Incidentals 

4| 

42. 

42 

43.     COMMISSIONS 

43 

44.     INSURANCE  ON  FREIGHT  MONEY 

44 

/    45.     LOSS  AND  DAMAGE  CLAIMS 

4S 

I   46.     BALLAST  EXPENSES 

46 

47 

Total  Freight  Expenses 

49.     INLAND  FREIGHT  (T.  ta  Msdal  fno  pvi  isnism) 

49 

SO.     Sl'B-AGENT'S  COMMISSIONS  

SO 

61.     PORT   CHARGES:    Pilotage  and  Towage 

61 

62.                                            Wharfage  and  Dock  Dues 

62 

63.                                            Customs  and  Harbor  Dues 

63 

64.                                            Incidentals 

64 

65.     DECK  DEPT               Wages 

65 

66.                                            Provisions 

66 

67.                                            Supplies 

67 

68.      _-                                 Repairs 

68 

(.1.                                            Incidentals 

69 

Total  Deck  Dept 

70.     ENGINE  TIBPT.:      Wages 

70 

71.                                            Provisions 

71 

72.                                            Coal 

72 

73.                                            Supplies 

73 

74                                             Repairs 

74 

75.                                        Incidentals 

75 

Total  EnKine  Dept. 

76.     PROTECTION  AND  MARINE  INSURANCE 

76 

77.     EXPENSES  AT  PORT  OF  CALC 

77 

Total  Steamship  Eipense! 

79.     MAIL  EXPENSES 

79 

80.     WINB,  TOBACCO,  ETC. 

SO 

G»*ND  TOTAI 

VOYACB  ROO(.T    f 

Number  of  days  on  round  voyage 

CSTABUttUUWT  CHAftOEJ 

FlG.    3. — VOYAGE   ACCOUNT. 

75 


76  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

ticular  voyage  took  place  or  not.    At  the  end  of  the  year  the  other- 
than-voyage  expense  must  be  deducted  from  total  voyage  profits  to 
show  the  net  earnings  of  the  steamship  enterprise. 
It  will  be  noted : 

1.  A  "voyage"  is  out  and  back,  a  "round  voyage." 

2.  Receipts   are   fairly   simple:  passenger,   freight,   mail,   wine 
(smoking  room,  etc.),  sundries. 

3.  Disbursements   are   subdivided   into   many   items,   and   each 
item  is  given  a  number  that  is  shown  in  both  margins.     The  main 
headings  for  expenses  are  Passenger,  Freight,  and  Steamship. 

4.  Under  "Freight"  are  several  important  accounts  that  come 
under  the  wharf  superintendent,   while  the   steamship   charges   are 
under  the  marine  superintendent.     Items  31  to  36  are  in  connection 
with  "Loading  and  discharging  cargo";  also  Nos.  37,  38,  39,  40, 
45  and  46.     These  items  are  all  quite  obvious,  yet  it  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  debit   the   correct   account   with   some   unusual   item   of 
expense. 

Under  "Expenses  not  apportioned  to  voyage  accounts"  (Fig. 
4),  the  items  are  assigned  numbers  above  100.  The  groups  are: 
Salaries  of  officers  and  clerks,  Office  expenses,  Advertising,  Wharf 
expenses,  and  Lay-up  expenses. 

Common  office  expenses  are  prorated  among  the  various  branch 
offices  according  to  an  agreed  schedule ;  that  is,  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  business  done  by  each  office. 

Papers  for  Inbound  Freight. — As  the  ship  must  first  dis- 
charge its  freight  before  loading,  it  is  logical  to  begin  with  inbound 
(at  Atlantic  ports  of  the  United  States,  westbound)  freight. 

Forms  of  the  International  Mercantile  Marine  Company  from 
both  the  Philadelphia  and  New  York  offices  are  used  as  fairly 
representative  examples. 

Tally  Slip. — Goods  landed  from  the  ship  for  eventual  delivery 
to  consignees  or  received  at  the  wharf  must  be  measured  and  counted. 
There  are  two  tally  slips  for  this  purpose :  one  for  the  delivery 
clerk's  office  (Fig.  5),  and  one  for  the  receiving  clerk's  office 
(Fig.  6).  The  checkers  or  tally  clerks  measure  the  packages, 
enter  marks,  and  tally  the  packages  of  shipments.  In  the  case  of 
large  shipments  in  bags,  barrels,  etc.,  there  may  be  several  hundred 
pieces  in  one  shipment.  The  tally  clerk  marks  up  the  score  by 
making  four  vertical  strokes  and  one  across,  forming  groups  of  five. 


/ 

Expenses  Not  Apportioned  to  Voyage  Accounts 
DURING  MONTH  OF                                                                   191 

Total 

101 

Salaries  of  Officers  and  Clerks 

$ 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

101 

OFPICB  FXPENSES 

104 

Rent  and  Taxes 

104 

105 

Office  Supplies 

05 

06 

106 

07 

1  el-crams.  Cables  &  Phone. 

107' 

08 

108 

09 

Light  and  Fuel 

TTF 

1 

Legal  kxpenses 

12 

Traveling  Expenses 

2 

13 

Contributions 

3 

14 

Dues  to  As«oc,.t,rns 

4 

15 

r.nteitaining  Hspentes 

S 

16 

Incidentals 

6 

18 

Erectors'  Fee, 

8 

Total  Office  Expense. 

/ 

z 

Pictures  and  Frames 

20 

121 

Fancy  Ads  ,  Posters,  etc. 

21 

122 

Regular  Newspapers 

22 

123 

Special  Ne™«pspe,s 

23 

124 

Special  Announcements 

24 

I2S 

Postage  and  K.pre-sage 

25 

126 

20 

Total  Advertising  Expenses 

* 

151 

WHARF  EXPENSES 
Salariej.and  Wages 

51 

152 

Rents  and  Taies 

52 

153 

General  Repiirs 

53 

154 

Telrcramt.  Cables  &  Phones 

34 

155 

Insurance 

55 

156 

Water  and  Supplies 

56 

157 

Incidental. 

57 

158 

Power  &  Wharf  Machinery  ! 

58 

160 

Supplies 

60 

161 

Repairs 

61 

162 

Stevedore  Gear  :  Supplies 

62 

163 

Repairs 

63 

i,- 

Total  Wharf  Rxpentes 

170 

Lay-up  Expenses 

170 

Proportion  from  other  lines 

Total 

COMMON  OFFICE  EXPENSES  (Proportion) 

Boston 

Steams 

ip 

!W,n 

er 

Freigh 

* 

s 

X 

Chelsea  Piers.  OScers  CInb  tnd  Passenger  Office 

Chicago 

M  nneapolis 

Montreal 

New  Orleans 

New  York 

New  York  Operating  Department 

Phi  .delphia 

Pittsburgh 

San  Fraucisco 

Seat  le 

St.  Louis 

Toronto 

Washington 

Winning 

London,  Cockspur  Street 

Leadenhall  Street 

Queenstown 

Southampton 

Comptroller's  Department 

Grand  Total 

FlG.  4. GENERAL  EXPENSE,  OTHER  THAN  VOYAGE. 

77 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


In  the  sase  of  mixed  shipments,  or  when  two  or  three  packages  are 
landed  together,  figures  are  entered  on  the  slip.  The  general  arrange- 
ment of  this  important  piece  of  paper  is  seen  from  the  illustrations. 


»'«               1.    M.    M.    CO.    WHARF 

New  York 
To  DELIVERY  CLER1 
Steamer  

Lighter  _ 

19 

t: 

Com'ncd  

Finished 

MARKS 

PACKAGES 

^N^    ^  _ 

*—  T-.            -—  -  '         *"           —  «^.         .,,                                                                 -—'                    

FIG.  5. 


07468               1.    M.    1 

VI.    CO.   WHARF 

New  Yorl 

c.                                                19 

To  -RECEIVING  CLE1 
Steamer 

IK: 
C«*«'nc<l              

Lighter 

Finished            „ 

MARKS 

PACKAGES 

•*>•       -**~-        —  **  

FlG.   6. TALLY   SLIPS. 

Lighter  Tally  Sheet. — Goods  discharged  from  ship  to  lighter  are 
tallied  on  a  more  elaborate  sheet  (Fig.  7).  This  sheet  shows 
from  what  steamer  discharged,  the  date,  the  marks,  tallies  and 
totals,  to  what  lighter  delivered,  and  by  whom  tallied. 


ACCOUNTING  AND  PAPER  WORK 


79 


The  Discharging  Receipt  Book. — While  at  sea  the  pursers  make 
up  the  discharging  receipt  book  from  the  manifest  and  bills  of 
lading.  This  is  a  book  of  two  hundred  numbered  pages  of  legal  cap 
One  book  is  necessary  for  each  port  at  which  cargo  is  dis- 


size. 


INTERN. 

Ex. 

VTIONAL  MERCANTILE  MARINE  LINES. 

New  York,             _                      191/ 

MARK 

Total 

\ 

55 

0 

Jl 

2 

i-.^1 

s! 

z  „ 

"J 

c 

s= 

0.  « 

?2 

I5 

<5 

c 

«>• 

I 
D 

T-s  Lighter 

Tallied  by  

When  2  or  more  packages  are  taken  at  a  time,  Enter  the  Quantity  in  Figures. 
Score  only  Single  Packages. 
When  Bales  of  Hides.  &c.,  or  Cases,  are  taken,  Enter  Numbers  of  each  Package. 

FlG.   7. — LIGHTER  TALLY   SHEET. 

charged,  for  the  guidance  of  the  delivery  clerk.  The  cover  bears 
the  serial  number  of  the  book,  the  name  of  the  steamship,  the  port 
of  loading,  and  the  date  of  arrival. 

Each  sheet  (Fig.  8)  should  carry  one  entry  only.  Small 
consignments  are  entered  two  and  sometimes  three  to  the  page.  The 
page  shows  the  line,  the  steamer,  the  consignee,  the  marks,  and  the 
bill-of-lading  number.  The  body  of  the  sheet  has  the  number  of 


8o 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


packages  in  words  and  in  figures  filled  in  when  it  reaches  the  delivery 
clerk.  When  delivery  is  accomplished,  the  date  and  the  cart  or 
lighter  to  which  delivery  is  made  are  entered,  and  the  truckman  or 
other  authorized  person  taking  delivery  signs  for  the  goods  in  the 
last  column.  All  additional  remarks,  such  as  short  shipment, 
damages,  goods  sent  to  appraiser's  stores,  consignment  sent  to  gen- 
eral order  stores,  etc.,  are  noted  on  the  page  under  the  entry  as  they 


200 

RECEIV 

by    Mess 
M 

ED  in  good  o 

rs 

rrlpr  from                                               Line  Ex.  S.  S 

thp         fXllo 

wing   goods: 

\RKS 
Bill  Lading  No.. 

Date 

Cart  or 
Lighter 

Number  of  packages  in  words 

No.  Pigs, 
in  figures 

Signature 

' 



_^_—  ^ 

_^-~_  --___*-  ^___  

_-—  —  ^___—  -^ 

L  •  --s 

FlG.    8. PAGE    200    FROM    THE    DISCHARGING    RECEIPT    BOOK. 

occur.  It  should  be  possible  to  look  at  the  discharging  receipt  book 
at  any  time  and  know  the  status  of  every  consignment  from  a  given 
steamer. 

The  discharging  receipt  book  record,  however,  is  not  sufficient. 
There  are  many  forms  in  connection  with  it  that  cover  many  things 
that  may  occur  in  connection  with  a  shipment. 

Records  of  Damaged  Cargo. — One  of  the  first  irregularities 
to  be  noted  are  damages  to  cargo.  Careful  record  of  this  is  impor- 
tant because  of  claims.  Damages  are  usually  detected  upon  landing 
by  the  tallyman,  whereupon  a  certificate  of  goods  landed  in  dam- 
aged or  "ullaged"  condition  is  made  out  and  signed  by  the  master  or 
chief  mate.  Figure  9  is  a  sample  from  the  Saluda,  properly  filled 
out.  This  form  gives  the  port,  date,  and  the  statement:  "This  is  to 
certify  that  the  following  packages  were  landed  from  on  board  the 
Saluda  in  ullaged  condition."  Then  follows  the  statement  noting 
B/L  number,  marks,  and  a  statement  of  the  nature  of  the  damage. 
This  form  is  executed  in  triplicate,  of  which  two  copies  are  retained 
at  the  office  and  one  sent  to  the  claims  department  of  the  head  office. 


Philadelphia, . 


.19 


This  is  to  certify  that  the  following  packages  were  landed 
from  on  board  sls &?-iM» in  ullaged  condition. 


^. 4. 19.   EB 


quantity  of  loose  root  landed  in  bulk, 


1  case  mustard,  6  bottles  broken, 


Signed 


G.  Kegeleers, 


FIG<  9. — SHIP  OFFICER'S  REPORT  OF  DAMAGED  CARGO. 


REPORT  OF  DAMAGED  CARGO. 
Steamship    **"*>»•                    .    Voy.               Arrived  PMlariiripHki.  .«Ae/w  .               19 

Itl/L 

tw«.- 

IU* 

I-b.™ 

r-^n. 

•. 

lu^-fr*..^ 

n.n  Bund 

UMUI 

1,2 

11  Various 

Various 

Number 

hole 

9   wool 

Wrappers  torn 

S  bales 

landed  ir.  bulk  (K) 

5,4,1 

9 

ES 

H/W 

481  toi 

8s  £ 

lng«r  root 

of  loose  root   1 

nded   In 

6 

H.   Kellogg  fc  So 

l  HKS 

1     Cl 

s.n 

usturd 

6  bottle*  broVen 

a^ned             S.   A. 

Sehall, 

Dock  Supt. 

—  ^.  ^ 

^__^-l 

V__--J 

.  J 

^^-^ 

^  J^ 

^-^  — 

FIG.  10. — DOCK  SUPERINTENDENT'S  OR  RECEIVING  CLERK'S  REPORT  OF 

DAMAGED  CARGO. 

81 


82  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Report  of  Damaged  Cargo. — The  receiving  clerk's  office  on  a 
special  form  (Fig.  10)  makes  out  its  own  report  of  the  damages  to 
cargo ;  usually  the  entries  include  the  same  information  as  that  given 
by  the  ship's  officer.  This  report  is  signed  by  the  receiving  clerk 


INTERNATIONAL  MERCANTILE  MARINE  LINES 

American  Line  Red  Star  Line 

Atlantic  Transport  Line  White  Star  Line 

Panama  Pacific  Line  JQ 

SPECIAL  DAMAGE  REPORT 

Voy B/L Armed 1 

.....  Mark. - 


What  wa.  the  exact  Stowage? ••••• 

W«.  Compartment  under  Lock? 

Wat  Merchandise  Referred  to  Immediately  Available  on  Opening  of  Hatchet? 
What  Cargo  wa*  .towed  around  it,  and  wai  any  Cargo  stowed  on  top  of  it? 


At  what  Time  were  Hatches  Opened? 

At  what  Time  did  Discharging  Begin? 

At  what  Time  was  Damage  Discovered? 

Was  Hatch  Left  Open  at  any  time  Unprotected,  if  so,  explain  why  ? 

Name  of  Man  who  Discovered  Damage 

Name  of  Foreman  in  Charge  of  Hatch 

Names  of  Men  Working  in  Hatch 


Name  of  Officer  on  Watch •• 

Name  of  Official  to  whom  Damage  was  Reported 

In  your  opinion  did  Loss  or  Damage  occur  during  the  loading  on  voyage  or  after  arrival  of  steamer? 

Remarks  and  Particular,  of  Lou  or  Damage? 


Chief  Clerk. 

No.   ChelseaPier*.  Sup't. 

New  York, 191  Officer. 


FlG.    II. — SPECIAL    REPORT   OF    UNUSUAL    OR    EXTENSIVE    DAMAGE    OR 
IN    CASE    OF    EXCESSIVE    CLAIMS. 

and  by  the  wharf  superintendent.  It  is  executed  in  triplicate:  one 
copy  to  Liverpool,  or  port  of  departure  of  merchandise,  one  to  the 
office  file,  and  one  to  the  admiralty  surveyor  (insurance  adjuster). 
Special  Damage  Report. — In  cases  of  unusual  and  extensive 
damage,  or  excessive  claims,  a  special  report  (Fig.  11)  is  required 
from  the  ship's  officers  and  wharf  superintendent.  It  also  is  signed 


ACCOUNTING  AND  PAPER  WORK 


83 


by  the  clerk  making  the  investigation.  The  question  sheet  covers 
pertinent  contributory  evidence.  It  includes  the  name  of  the  ship, 
the  voyage,  the  B/L  number,  marks,  date  arrived  in  port,  the  nature 
of  the  merchandise,  the  consignee,  then  the  questions :  What  was  the 
exact  stowage?  Was  the  compartment  under  lock  (for  pilferage)  ? 
Was  merchandise  referred  to  immediately  available  on  opening  of 


FILE  S.  S. 

INTERNATIONAL    MERCANTILE    MARINE    LINES 

C  DOMINION    LINE  LCYUANO    LINE 

WHITE    1TAK     UNE  WHITC    STAR-DOMINION    LINE 

REPORT   OF   CARGO    SHORT   AND    IN    EXCESS 

INSTRUCTIONS   TO   DELIVERY   CLERKS. 

I  u  pomblr  *flet  dcBrrry  <rf  Inward  carfo.  thi.  bl.nk  ihould  b<  filled  out  with  ptrbcuUra.  rign«i  by  the  WW  Oik 
•ad  toil  to  INWARD  FREIGHT  DEPARTMENT,  1 1  rWkny.  NEW  YORK. 


Steamship 


Voy._  —.arrived  New  York,. 


191 


M.rk.  ind  Nuntxri 


:    r 

MEMORANDUM    OF   CARGO   SHORT    EX.    PREVIOUS    STEAMERS 
AND    OUT-TURNED    FROM    ABOVE   STEAMER 

StatBtr  ud  Voyift 

Cooiignw 

Mertli.nrtiw 

Nnmhei 
PVf  i.  Short 

n™An-t 

»«m.,k. 

n« 

FIG.  12. — "OVER  AND  SHORT  LANDED"  FORM. 

hatches'?  What  cargo  was  stowed  around  it,  and  was  any  cargo 
stowed  on  top  of  it*?  At  what  time  were  hatches  opened?  At  what 
time  did  discharging  begin  ?  At  what  time  was  damage  discovered  ? 
Was  hatch  left  open  at  any  time  unprotected;  if  so,  explain  why*? 
Name  of  man  who  discovered  damage.  Names  of  men  working  in 
hatch.  Name  of  officer  on  watch.  Name  of  official  to  whom  dam- 
age was  reported.  In  your  opinion  did  loss  or  damage  occur  during 
the  loading,  on  voyage,  or  after  arrival  of  steamer?  Remarks  and 
particulars  of  loss  or  damage. 

Over  and  Short  Landed. — Another  irregularity  after  damage 
is  "short  landed"  or  missing  packages,  or  more  packages  landed  than 


84  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

shown  in  the  manifest  or  discharging  receipt  book.  With  the  present 
congestion  of  wharves  the  world  over,  it  is  very  easy  for  some  of  the 
packages  of  a  shipment  to  be  put  on  to  the  wrong  steamer.  Out  of 
the  530  barrels  of  mackerel  shipped  to  S.  H.  Levins'  Sons,  there 
was  one  barrel  missing  at  Philadelphia.  In  Buenos  Aires  the  delivery 
clerk  may  find  that  he  has  a  barrel  of  mackerel,  Mark  B,  landed  from 
a  vessel  for  which  he  has  no  papers  and  no  record.  The  delivery 
clerk  at  Philadelphia  notifies  the  port  of  loading  (Liverpool)  that 
he  is  "short,"  the  delivery  clerk  at  Buenos  Aires  notifies  Liverpool 
that  he  has  a  barrel  of  mackerel  "over."  In  due  time  he  is  notified 
to  ship  the  barrel  to  Philadelphia  on  the  next  available  steamer  of 
the  line  or  back  to  Liverpool  for  transshipment. 

On  some  future  form  (Fig.  12)  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  there 
will  be  noted  that  one  barrel  of  mackerel  "short"  on  the  steamer 

Saluda,  voyage  No. ,  has  arrived.  Needless  to  say,  the  mackerel 

will  not  have  become  any  better  in  the  meantime  and  Messrs.  S.  H. 
Levins'  Sons  will  have  long  since  entered  a  damage  claim  for  the 
merchandise.  The  "over  and  short  landed"  form  is  made  out  in 
triplicate,  one  copy  is  retained,  one  sent  to  the  claims  department, 
head  office  (New  York),  and  one  to  the  port  at  which  the  merchan- 
dise was  loaded  (Liverpool).  The  form  is  signed  by  the  delivery 
clerk  and  the  wharf  superintendent. 

The  same  company  in  New  York  uses  a  form,  "Report  of  Cargo 
Short  and  in  Excess,"  which  bears  the  printing,  "Instructions  to 
Delivery  Clerks.  As  soon  as  possible  after  delivery  of  inward 
cargo,  this  blank  should  be  filled  out  with  particulars,  signed  by  the 
wharf  clerk,  and  sent  to  Inward  Freight  Department,  1 1  Broadway, 
New  York." 

Monthly  Report  of  Cargo  in  Excess  (over)  Bill  of  Lading  Quan- 
tity.— The  report  made  at  the  time  the  vessel  is  discharged  is  not 
sufficient  for  all  purposes.  Over  or  in-excess  cargo  accumulates 
and  must  be  disposed  of  in  order  to  make  room  on  the  wharves  and 
in  warehouses.  An  excellent  example  of  what  may  happen  when 
no  final  disposition  of  such  merchandise  can  be  made  is  given  by  the 
Port  of  Havana  Docks  Company,  at  Havana,  Cuba.  In  this  case 
all  goods  not  claimed  and  delivered  were  sent  to  storage  in  the  bulk- 
head warehouses.  The  customs  regulations  require  that  the  goods  be 
held  six  months  and,  if  not  claimed,  sold  at  auction  to  cover  cus- 
toms and  storage  charges.  The  customs  auctioneer  had  followed  the 


ACCOUNTING  AND  PAPER  WORK 


85 


practice  of  refusing  sale  if  the  bids  did  not  cover  these  charges.  All 
merchandise  is  more  or  less  perishable  and  it  is  conceivable  that  our 
barrel  of  mackerel  cited  above  would  not  be  worth  the  duty  and  six 
months'  storage,  and  would  not  be  sold.  Thus  had  accumulated  at 
Havana  such  odds  and  ends  until  one-seventh  of  the  total  valuable 
floor  space  of  the  terminal  was  taken  up  by  them  and  withheld 
from  active  use.  The  manager  had  a  monthly  report  of  seventy-one 
such  sheets  as  Figure  13. 


f>.-'SJ 

Wl 

Report 

ex  Steatners  from  _ 
and  Including  all  Me 

/f^.  /» 

0                       9 

ESTBOUND  FREIGHT  DEPARTMENT 

of  Cargo  in  excess  Bill  of  1 

for  Month  enc 

uad 

ing 
dispc 

ing  quai 

itity 

....191 

e. 

rchandise  on  Dock  or  in  Warehouse  not 

sed  of  to  da  I 

.STEAMER 

vov. 

IKIIIL 

M.  n«. 

MERCHANDISE 

IM«T 

MARKS 

FW»l    D.SPOS.T10M 

^  —  •*—  ~. 

L  "-  ~~-  ~-^_  ' 

FlG.  13. REPORT  OF  EXCESS  CARGO. 

Jt  will  be  noted  that  the  monthly  report  will  require  a  separate 
sheet  for  each  foreign  port.  The  original  goes  to  the  westbound 
freight  department,  one  copy  to  foreign  port,  and  one  is  retained. 
This  report  serves  two  purposes :  it  indicates  at  a  glance  the  amount 
of  the  accumulation  of  merchandise  and  acts  as  a  check  on  previous 
reports  that  may  be  easily  scanned. 

Notice  to  Remove  Merchandise. — One  of  the  foundation 
principles  of  any  well-managed  wharf  is  that  merchandise  must  be 
kept  moving  and  must  not  be  permitted  to  remain  on  the  wharf 
longer  than  is  necessary  to  assemble  it  for  customs  inspection  and 
delivery  to  consignee.  If  goods  are  permitted  to  remain  on  the 
wharf  they  add  to  the  congestion  and  confusion  that  is  already  too 
costly.  One  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  complete  breakdown  of  the 


86 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


Port  of  Havana,  Cuba,  in  1920,  was  the  fact  that  on  all  privately 
owned  wharves  the  storage  rates  were  very  low  and  calculated 
monthly.  It  was  much  cheaper  for  a  merchant  to  use  the  wharves  for 
the  storage  of  his  merchandise  than  to  provide  his  own  warehouse. 


rtis  // 

W  B.  Form  11 

INTERNATIONAL  MERCANTILE   MARINE   LINES 

AMERICAN  LINE  LEYLAND  LINE 

ATLANTIC  TRANSPORT  LINE  RED  STAR  LINE 

DOMINION  LINE  .  WHITE  STAR  LINE 

WHITE  STAR-DOMINION  LINE 

11  BROADWAY 

PILE  ».  S 

New  York, 191 


FINAL    NOTICE 


Dear  Sirs : 


Please  note  that  the  following  Merchandise  for  your  ac-  _j 

count,  ex  S.  S arrived «•" 

191. .  still  remains  on  pier  No North  River  (Chelsea  Piers.)  §. 

B/L  No.  Marks  No.  Packages  Merchandise  5- 


In  accordance  with  custom  and  to  make  room  for  incoming 
cargo,  we  must  ask  that  you  remove  same  before  TEN  A.  M. 

191...  .otherwise  we  shall  be  obliged  to  store 

same  at  your  risk  and  expense,  and  this  without  further  notice. 

Your  prompt  attention  to  the  above  will  greatly  oblige, 
Yours  truly, 


TELETHON 
OOWLINO  OHtE 


:'«oo 


INWARD  FREIGHT  DEPARTMENT 

Per .. 


FlG.    14. — FINAL    REMOVAL    NOTICE. 

Even  if  a  punitive  wharfage  rate  after  forty-eight  hours  should  be 
assessed,  in  order  to  force  the  consignee  to  take  delivery  of  his 
goods,  there  are  always  odds  and  ends  of  in-excess  and  unclaimed 
shipments  that  must  be  removed  to  some  warehouse  to  clear  the 
wharves  for  working  the  ships.  Therefore  it  is  a  better  policy,  now 
fairly  general,  for  the  wharf  superintendent  to  remove  from  the 


ACCOUNTING  AND  PAPER  WORK 


87 


wharf  to  warehouses  all  merchandise  remaining  after  forty-eight 
hours.  The  expense  of  cartage,  etc.,  is  charged  to  the  merchandise 
and  is  paid  by  the  consignee  before  receiving  the  goods. 

The  delivery  clerk  sends  to  the  consignee  a  notice  as  indicated  by 
Figure  14. 


S?  MS.  /  2. 


INTERNATIONAL  MERCANTILE  MARINE  LINES 

AMERICAN   LINE  PANAMA  PACIFIC  LINE  RED  STAR  LINE 

ATLANTIC  TRANSPORT  LINE  WHITE  STAR   LINE 

LEVLAND  LINE  WHITE  STAR-DOMINION  LINE 


STORAGE  ORDER 


Pier         .North  River,  N.  Y. 

...._ 191 

File:    S.  S. _ 

Truckmen 
Warehouse 


At  the  risk  and  expense  of  owners  please 


Warehouse  at _ 

merchandise  as  follows 


Marks  and  Numbers 


ex  S.S...._ _  Voy. B/L_ _ ;  Arrived 

Said  merchandise  to  be  stored  in  name  as  shown  on  Custom  House 

permit  as  follows: __ _ 

and  Warehouse  receipt  sent  to  party  named  immediately. 

INWARD  FREIGHT  DEPARTMENT 


Copy  10  Truckra 


FlG.    IS- STORAGE  ORDER   TO   TRUCKING   COMPANY   TO   TRANSFER 

MERCHANDISE  FROM   WHARF  TO  PUBLIC  WAREHOUSE. 

Storage  Order. — At  the  expiration  of  the  stated  period,  in  fact 
sometimes  in  advance  of  the  exact  hour,  to  save  time,  a  storage  order 
(Fig.  15)  is  issued  to  a  trucking  company,  naming  the  warehouse 
wit'h  the  statement : 


88 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


At  the  risk  and  expense  of  owners  please  transfer  to  and  store 

in   warehouse   at ,   merchandise   as   follows: ; 

marks  and  numbers, ;  ex  S.  S ;  voyage 

;  B.  L ;  Arrived Said 

merchandise  to  be  stored  in  name  as  shown  on  customhouse  permit 

as  follows : and  warehouse  receipt  sent  to  party  named 

immediately.     INWARD  FREIGHT  DEPARTMENT. 


PierIN 

o.             N.  R. 

New 

'  Yorkr 

19 

Goo 

dssenttoG 

eneral  Order 

Store 

S.S. 

Voy.                  A 

Arrived 

19 

B/L 

MARKS     Af 

(0    NUMBERS 

PKOS.    AND    CONTENTS 

REMARKS 

A 
FIG.  1 6. 


/?****  /I* 

A-1-14-IM, 

CARGO    SENT    ON    GENERAL    ORDER. 

Q/P                     1«Q 

Steamship    Saluda  Voy  Arrived  Philadelphia, 

.6/12/19  ,9 

No. 
BILL. 

CONSIGNEE. 

MARK3. 

NUMBERS. 

I'ACKAUEb. 

MOSt. 

WNUH 
STORED. 

LIEN 
FILED. 

8 

(S* 

(P) 

15  c 

asks 

>alm  oil 

8/25/19 
Itlantlc  S 

tores. 

S     A 

Char 

63  Tlttor 

1,   Roc 

eivln 

>  Clerk. 

—  _-~- 

___^.  '  

'  .  - 

^_______ 

B 

FlG.  1 6. RECORD  OF  CARGO  SENT  TO  GENERAL  ORDER  STORES. 

Four  copies  are  made :  one  to  truckman,  one  to  warehouse,  one  to 
office,  one  retained  at  pier.  Entry  is  made  in  the  discharging  receipt 
book  that  the  merchandise  has  been  sent  to  general-order  warehouse 
so  and  so. 

List  of  Goods  Sent  to  General  Order  Store. — In  addition  to  the 


ACCOUNTING  AND  PAPER  WORK 


89 


entry  in  the  discharging  receipt  book  and  the  brief  mention  of  the 
marks  and  numbers  in  the  storage  order,  a  list  of  the  merchandise 
in  some  detail  is  necessary  as  a  full  record  of  their  disposition.  This 
list  is  made  out  in  triplicate :  one  copy  to  Liverpool,  one  to  claims 
department,  and  one  to  office  file  (Figs.  i6a  and  i6b). 


NOTICE  OF  CLAIM  FOR  FREIGHT 


PHILADELPHIA,  .....................................  .  ..........  ____  .....  191. 


Collector  of  Customs.  PhiUdelphi.,  ft. 


HON 

Sir: 

You  will  please  take  notice  that  the  undersigned 
have  a  lien  for  freight  and  charges  on  the  following  described 
goods  and  merchandise,  now  in  your  possession,  viz  5 
The  packages  are  as  follows  : 

The  marks,  numbers,  and  brands  are  as  follows : 

The   said   goods   and   merchandise   were   imported  per 

Steamship 

from They  arrived: 

were  entered and  consigned  to 

_....„ They  are  now  at 


The  amount  claimed  for  freight  and  charges  is 


d.im  Oclob.r  Jd.  1890 

Atlantic  Transport  Co. 


1   - agent  °>  ATLANTIC  TRANSPORT  Co., 

claimant  in  tins  case,  do  solemnly  affirm  that  the  matter  and  things  set  forth  in  the 
annexed  notice  are  true,  and  that  the  sum  claimed  therein  is  due,  aud  unpaid,  and  wa> 
•  subsisting  lien  upon  the  goods  described  at  the  time  the  same  passed  into  the  custody 
of  the  custom  officers. 
Affirmed  to  and  subscribed  to  before  me  this  day  of -19 


FlG.    17. LIEN    NOTICE    TO   THE    COLLECTOR   OF    CUSTOMS. 

Customs  Lien  Notice. — When  the  line  has  not  been  paid  freight  or 
other  expenses,  such  as  cartage  to  general  stores  and  warehouse 
charges,  and  the  goods  have  not  been  cleared  through  the  customs, 
the  delivery  clerk  notifies  the  customs  not  to  release  the  merchandise 
to  the  consignee  until  such  charges  have  been  paid.  Under  the  bill- 


90  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

of-lading  contract  the  steamship  company  reserves  the  right  of  hold- 
ing the  merchandise  until  its  claims  have  been  paid.  The  lien  notice 
(Fig.  17)  reads  as  follows: 

SIR:  You  will  please  take  notice  that  the  undersigned  have  a 
lien  for  freight  and  charges  on  the  following  described  goods  and 
merchandise,  now  in  your  possession,  viz. :  The  packages  are  as 
follows : 

The  marks,  numbers,  and  brands  are  as  follows : 

The    said    goods    and    merchandise    were    imported    per    Steamship 

from They  arrived 

,  were  entered ,  and  consigned  to 

They  are  now  at The  amount  claimed 

for  freight  and  charges  is This  notice  is 

served  in  pursuance  of  Act  of  Congress  approved  May  21,  1896,  and 
Treas.  Reg.,  dated  October  2,  1896.  Signed,  ATLANTIC  TRANSPORT 
COMPANY. 

I,   ,  agent  of  ATLANTIC  TRANSPORT  COMPANY, 

claimant  in  this  case,  do  solemnly  affirm  that  the  matter  and  things 
set  forth  in  the  annexed  notice  are  true,  and  that  the  sum  claimed 
therein  is  due  and  unpaid,  and  was  a  subsisting  lien  upon  the  goods 
described,  at  the  time  the  same  passed  into  the  custody  of  the  custom 

officers.     Affirmed  to  and  subscribed  to  before  me  this   

day  of 192 Signed,  Deputy  Collector 

Note  that  this  document  must  be  sworn  to  before  a  deputy 
collector.  The  form  is  executed  in  duplicate :  one  copy  to  the  custom- 
house and  one  retained. 

These,  then,  are  the  most  important  papers  connected  with  in- 
bound freight  and  handled  by  the  delivery  clerk's  office. 

Delivery  Order. — When  all  freight  charges  and  formalities  have 
been  taken  care  of  the  truckman  is  given  a  delivery  order  adcjressed 

to  the  delivery  clerk  saying:  "Deliver  to  order  of the 

following  merchandise  from  above-named  steamer  at  Pier  No 

(marks  and  numbers) "  This  form  (Fig.  18)  is  a  pass  for 

the  truckman  with  the  merchandise  to  go  past  the  wharf  gates.  Only 
one  copy  is  necessary,  as  the  form  is  made  up  in  a  stub  book  and  the 
stub  constitutes  the  record. 

The  merchandise  has  now  been  delivered  to  the  consignee's  agent 
and  removed  from  the  wharf. 


ACCOUNTING  AND  PAPER  WORK 


Papers  of  the  (Outbound)  Receiving  Clerk's  Office. — The 

cargo  from  the  Saluda,  from  Liverpool  to  Philadelphia,  has  now 
been  discharged  and  delivered  or  otherwise  disposed  of.    The  Saluda 


INTERNATIONAL  MERCANTILE  MARINE  LINES 

405-40*/feoyRSE    BUILDING 

^ifc^^ 


No. 

AMERICAN  LINE. 
ATLANTIC  TRANSPORT  LINE. 

RED  STAR  LINE.  ^ ./  Philadelphia, 

Detiverji  Clerk: 

Deliver  to  order  oJ^^'..L..f^.:^..: 

the  following  merchandise  from  above-named  Steamertat  Pier  \       ~JV0r7n 

1  J"^ South 


INTERNATIONA 
Pe 


LE    MARINE    CO. 


FIG.  1 8. — TRUCKMAN'S  PASS  TO  PERMIT  HIM  TO  REMOVE  GOODS  FROM  THE  WHARF. 

must  be  enfreighted  for  the  return  trip.  The  outbound  or  east- 
bound  freight  department  has  been  soliciting  freight.  Various 
records  and  forms  are  necessary  at  the  main  office  and  at  the  wharf 


rw.w-iiw                                                                            Ptr*>~ 
AMERICAN  LINE 

RED  STAR  LINE 

ATLANTIC  TRANSPORT  LINE 

HOLLAND-AMERICA  LINE 

PHIL. 

Messrs  Caldwell   &  Company, 

ADELPHIA  .AU£*....2§.,._..._  .1019. 

PHILADEUP 
Dear  Sirs:- 
Please  deliver  to  S/s             Saluda 

HIA. 

at  Pier  55  South 

>          -                        Wharves  on       Tuesday,  Aup..   26th 

u  1919    the  following  cargo  under 

contract. 

Yours  truly, 
WALTER  T.  ROACH. 

Manag.r. 

PBOPBITT                                                 DBBTISATIOH 

feitrut                           KEMABKS 

6  boxes   Iron  car  trucks           Liverpool 

_——  -^    —  —  ^    ..^-  ~*~-  ^^—  ^~              ~~" 

-  —  *-—  ^_^>v  ^^  _ 

FlG.   19. — DELIVERY  NOTICE. 

to  keep  track  of  this  business.  These  papers  pass  through  the  office 
of  the  receiving  clerk,  to  keep  track  of  the  freight  and  proper  charges, 
and  to  the  office  of  the  pier  superintendent,  who  is  more  directly  con- 
cerned v/ith  the  loading  and  stowing. 


92  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

The  Delivery  Notice. — A  patron  of  the  line,  let  us  say  Caldwell 
&  Company,  has  secured  space  for  the  shipment  of  six  boxes  of  iron 
car  trucks  on  the  Saluda,  sailing  on  or  about  August  28.  When  the 
outbound  freight  department  learns  from  the  wharf  superintendent 
that  the  Saluda  is  light  and  will  be  loading  on  August  26,  27,  28, 
and  29,  and  will  probably  want  to  load  these  car  trucks  August  26 
late  or  early  August  27,  there  is  then  sent  to  the  consignor  (Caldwell 
&  Company)  a  notice  (Fig.  19)  that  reads: 

Philadelphia,  August  25. 
MESSRS.  CALDWELL  &  COMPANY, 

Philadelphia. 
DEAR  SIRS  : 

Please  deliver  to  Saluda  at  pier  55,  South ,  on  Tuesday, 

August  26,  19191  the  following  cargo  under  contract. 

Yours  truly, 

WALTER  T.  ROACH,  Manager. 

There  then  follows  a  description  of  the  goods.  This  form  is  made 
out  in  duplicate,  the  carbon  copy  being  retained  for  the  files. 

With  piers  crowded  it  is  very  important  that  the  time  of 
delivery  as  indicated  by  advices  from  the  wharves  be  observed 
accurately  in  order  not  to  encumber  the  wharves  by  having  the  goods 
arrive  too  soon  or  delay  loading  by  having  them  arrive  too  late. 

Dock  Receipt. — After  the  merchandise  has  arrived  on  the  wharf 
the  tallyman  checks  it,  weighs  and  measures  it,  and  enters  the  results 
on  a  tally  list  or  slip  (Fig.  6),  addressed  "to  the  receiving 
clerk,"  which  he  signs.  This  slip  with  the  delivery  order  (Fig.  18) 
goes  to  the  office  of  the  receiving  clerk,  where  the  dock  receipt  clerk 
writes  out  the  dock  receipt  (Fig.  20).  The  dock  receipt  is  made 
out  in  duplicate,  or  check  and  stub,  as  in  the  sample.  The  original 
is  given  to  the  truckman  or  clerk  accompanying  the  delivery  and  the 
duplicate  is  retained  as  a  record.  The  dock  receipt  is  an  important 
paper,  as  it  gives  title  to  the  goods  until  exchanged  for  the  bill  of 
lading,  which  must  be  done  twenty-four  hours  before  sailing  date. 
Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  paragraph  in  fine  print. 

The  words  "Received  the  following  goods  in  apparent  good 
order"  are  also  important.  The  receiving  clerk  will  refuse  to  accept 
any  merchandise  that  is  not  in  good  order  so  far  as  can  be  seen, 
because  once  loaded  the  line  faces  the  question  of  claims  for  damage 


S3.1S£i!! 

Biv?S 


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93 


94 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


and  for  insurance,  the  responsibility  of  the  steamship  company,  and 
many  vexing  and  troublesome  questions  that  may  mean  loss  and 
delay. 

Record  of  Measurements. — The  tally  slip  and  delivery  order  go 
to  the  extension  clerk  in  the  receiving  clerk's  office,  who  converts  the 
tallyman's  long  measurements  of  the  cases  into  cubic  measurement. 
Various  forms  are  used  to  record  the  results  and  to  forward  them 
to  the  outbound  freight  department  for  exact  calculation  of  the 
freight  rate.  The  form  illustrated  in  Figure  21  is  used  at  New 
York  but  not  used  at  Philadelphia.  It  shows,  in  the  heading,  the 
steamer,  voyage,  dock  receipt  number,  date  and  shipper,  and  in 
columns  it  gives  marks  and  numbers,  number  of  packages  in  figures, 


MEASUREMENTS. 
S.S.  _  -  -  

jv  Y                        i9i    si 

Voy  „.  Re 
upper....  _ 

C*UI 

ceipt  JVb  

Marks  and  Nos. 

P'k'gs 

Measurements 

Cube  of 
One  P'k'g 

Cubic 
Contents 

Weight 

Remarks 

k  .  —  ,  _J 

FlG.  21. — MEASUREMENT  RECORD. 

measurements,  cube  of  one  package,  cubic  contents  of  shipment, 
weight  and  remarks,  where  is  stated  the  number  of  cargo  tons  by 
weight  or  measurement  as  the  case  may  be.  The  sheet  should  bear 
the  name  of  the  tallyman  who  measured  and  weighed  the  goods  and 
be  signed  by  the  extension  clerk.  There  may  be  two  copies,  one  for 
the  wharf  and  one  for  the  outbound  freight  department,  or  the 
receiving  clerk's  record  may  be  entered  in  a  book. 

The  Cargo  List  or  Sheet  (Fig.  22). — As  rapidly  as  merchandise 
is  accepted  for  shipment  and  tonnage  calculations  are  made,  the  cargo 
sheet  clerk  enters  the  items  on  a  large  form  called  "East  Bound  Cargo 

List,  S.  S ,  Voyage ,  Sailed 19—" 

The  sheets   are   numbered  consecutively.     The   forms   differ   even 


?w  ir  < 
INTERNATIONAL  MERCANTILE  MARINE  LINES 

AMERICAN  IJNK 

PHILADELPHIA  "VERPOOL  SERVICE 
«!h^,  NP  FA*T  POUND  TApr.n  UST  s  s  Saluda  Vnj,  SAU  Rri  ,9 

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B,  F,  Houghton  &  Co- 
E.  E.  Delp  Grain  Co. 

P.  R.  Mitchell  Company 

Si 

10 

95 


96 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


between  offices  of  the  same  company,  but  the  list  must  show  all  the 
details  of  all  the  shipments  made  on  the  vessel.  There  are  columns 
in  which  are  entered,  across  the  page :  the  shipper,  the  consignee, 


OUTWARI 

(To 

<n.  s.  4m,  41 

PORT  c 
Report  and  manifest  of  the  cargo  laden 
on  board  the_Ajnerican.  Freight.  S§. 

'    (Flag.)                            (Rig.) 

A.   E.   Ellis 

)  FOREIGN  MANIFEST. 

e  filed  with  Collector  by  the  Muter.) 
(9,  and  Art.  140  of  Customs  Regulation,  of  19)5  ) 

,191  9 

for  shipment  from  the  Port  of.PMlaOe.lphia  
."galuda"     t  , 

cl  tons,  whereof 

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In  lien  of  above  particulars, 

copies  of  bilk  ojtadin 

;  stamped  "For  clearance  purposes  only"  will  be  accepted  if  attache,!  to  thij  form.       H-MI 

FlG.    23. — OFFICIAL   MANIFEST  FOR   THE   COLLECTOR  OF  CUSTOMS. 

marks  and  numbers,  initial  (that  is,  how  received,  by  team,  lighter, 
rail,  etc.),  number  of  through  bill  of  lading  or  car  number,  kind  of 
container,  quantity  and  nature  of  the  merchandise,  weight,  measure- 
ment, U.  S.  license  number,  U.  S.  Customs  declaration  number  2  and 

2 See  "Paper  Work  in  Export  Trade,"  Miscellaneous  Series  No.  85 
(sold  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents  for  $i),  for  a  full  description  of 
the  commercial  papers  connected  with  the  shipment,  including  steamship  bill 
of  lading,  etc. 


ACCOUNTING  AND  PAPER  WORK 


97 


remarks.  The  information  is  received  from  the  dock  receipt  stubs  and 
the  calculations  of  the  extension  clerk,  with  delivery  notice  and  other 
papers  that  may  have  accumulated.  Two  copies  are  made,  one  is 
retained,  the  other  goes  to  the  main  office.  From  it  and  the  bills  of 
lading  is  made  out  the  ship's  manifest. 

The  Ship's  Freight  Manifest. — Every  ship  by  law  must  carry 
a  complete  and  accurate  list  of  all  passengers  and  of  all  freight  on 
the  vessel  on  a  particular  voyage.  It  is  necessary  to  have  the  mani- 


AMERICAN  UNC.                                             ATLANTIC  TRANSPORT  UNC. 

MCO  STAN  LINK. 

.      Aug.   Hth,   1919»«, 

HOLLA' 

Mr.  STEPHEN  A.  SCHELL, 

DMfSlr, 

IO-AMCRICA  UNC. 

PI 

.,  e.  Saluda                              «„„    2 

••Ming   August,                      ,a,9.       ...    Liverpool. 

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fest  complete  and  ready  to  be  carried  by  the  master  as  part  of  his 
ship's  papers  when  the  ship  sails.  Modern  manifests  are  large 
sheets,  made  out  on  a  wide-carriage  typewriter.  As  many  carbons 
as  possible  are  made,  as  copies  of  the  manifest  go  to  numerous  offices 
and  files.  The  headings  of  the  sheets  and  columns  cover  various 
entries,  among  which  we  find  many  old  friends  and  some  new 
items.  (See  folded  insert.) 

Outward  Foreign  Manifest. — The  official  form  of  manifest, 
which  must  be  filed  with  the  Collector  of  Customs  by  the  Master  of 
the  Ship,  for  the  customs  (clearance  office)  is  shown  in  Figure  23,  to 
which  may  be  attached  copies  of  the  ship's  freight  manifest.  This 
form  is  made  in  triplicate:  original  and  copies  to  the  customhouse, 
which  retains  one,  gives  one  to  the  master  for  his  ship's  papers,  and 
one  is  retained  by  the  line.  The  document  must  be  sworn  to. 

Memorandum  oj  Merchandise  for  the  Wharf  Superintendent. — 
As  rapidly  as  space  is  sold  for  a  certain  steamer  the  wharf  superin- 


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ioo  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

tendent  must  be  informed  to  enable  him  to  plan  the  stowing.  The 
sample  notice  (Fig.  24)  is  dated  August  11,  which  is  more  than 
two  weeks  before  the  next  sailing  of  the  Saluda.  The  notice  reads : 

Philadelphia,  August  11,  1919. 

MR.  STEPHEN  A.  SCHELL,  Dock  Superintendent. 
DEAR  SIR: 

Below  we  hand  you  memorandum  of  merchandise  for  Steamer 
Saluda,  Voyage  2,  sailing  August  (date  not  known),  1919,  for 
Liverpool. 

Yours  truly, 

P.  F.  YOUNG,  Manager. 
Per  L.  S.  HAMILTON,  Clerk. 

Then  follows  in  ruled  columns  the  name  of  the  shipper,  quantity 
and  nature  of  the  merchandise,  marks,  tons  weight,  and  cubic  feet 
(consignor's  measurement),  BL.  or  car  No.,  delivery  (if  arriving 
locally)  or  by  what  railroad.  This  form  is  executed  in  triplicate  or 
quadruplicate,  original  to  the  wharf,  one  copy  retained,  one  to  the 
railroad  or  roads  concerned  with  the  delivery  of  the  freight  to  the 
pier. 

The  Stowage  Plan. — The  wharf  superintendent  allows  the  no- 
tices for  the  Saluda  to  accumulate  in  a  file  until  shortly  before  actual 
stowing  operations  begin.  The  notices  are  then  gone  over  and  the 
ship  is  loaded  on  paper  by  writing  the  various  shipments  into  the 
spaces  on  a  ship's  profile  stowage  chart,  a  rough  fore-and-aft  sec- 
tional outline  of  this  ship  or  another  of  the  same  type  (Figs.  25 
and  26).  As  loading  proceeds  the  items  are  checked  off,  and  any 
changes  due  to  unforeseen  conditions  are  noted.  This  work  is  all 
done  by  the  stowage  clerk  with  the  advice  of  the  pier  superintendent, 
chief  stevedore,  and  ship's  master.  When  lading  is  practically  com- 
pleted a  fresh  profile  stowage  plan  is  made  with  at  least  two  carbon 
copies.  The  original  is  retained,  one  copy  goes  with  the  ship,  and 
one  to  the  customhouse  with  the  manifest  and  other  clearance  papers. 
The  final  plan  records  the  draft  forward,  aft,  and  mean ;  tons  of  coal, 
tons  of  water,  tons  of  cargo,  and  sometimes  average  tonnage  loaded 
per  day,  or  hour,  total  time  for  loading,  etc.  Additional  points  con- 
cerning the  stowage  plan  will  be  developed  in  later  chapters. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CARGO  TRANSFER:     I.     METHODS  OF  TRANSFER1 

Introductory  Statement. — The  term  "transfer"  is  applied  to 
the  movement  of  freight  between  a  ship  and  a  wharf  or  another 
vessel.  Hereafter,  when  the  term  "transfer  movement"  or  "transfer" 
is  used  it  means  only  the  movement  to  or  from  a  ship.  The  term 
"cargo-handling"  is  used  sometimes  to  include  transfer,  but  usually 
the  term  applies  to  the  movement  of  goods  about  the  wharves  and 
warehouses,  such  as  stacking,  weighing,  tiering,  and  all  those  proc- 
esses where  hands  are  laid  on  the  various  pieces  of  merchandise. 

In  loading  and  discharging  vessels  there  are  two  distinct  types  of 
transfer:  (i)  transfer  through  side  ports,  and  (2)  transfer  through 
deck  hatches.  Side-port  transfer  prevails  in  coastwise,  river,  and 
Great  Lakes  traffic,  also  in  harbor  craft,  particularly  with  covered 
lighters.  Side-port  movement  is  similar  to  loading  and  unloading 
a  box  car. 

Transfer  through  hatches  is  the  prevailing  type  in  all  ocean- 
going vessels  and  in  the  great  bulk-freight  carriers  that  are  so  efficient 
on  the  Great  Lakes.  This  transfer  has  its  parallel  in  loading  and 
unloading  the  gondola  car  in  railroad  freight  service. 

Transfer  to  the  decks  of  ocean  vessels  may  be  by  either  the  side- 
port  or  the  deck-hatch  method  so  far  as  the  movement  or  trajectory 
is  concerned.  For  instance,  in  the  transfer  to  an  open-deck  lighter, 
such  as  most  of  those  used  about  American  harbors,  it  is  immaterial 
whether  the  machinery  used  for  hatch  transfer  deposits  the  goods 
from  above  or  whether  the  machinery  used  for  a  side-port  transfer 
runs  on  to  the  deck  laterally.  There  is  a  parallel  in  transfer  to  or 
from  the  flat  car  in  railroad  service.  It  is  also  immaterial  whether 
a  crane  or  "winch  and  fall"  deposits  the  package  vertically  from 
above  or  horizontally  from  the  side.  Therefore,  open-deck  loading 
may  be  by  either  the  horizontal  or  the  vertical  method.  These  two 

1  By  R.  S.  MacElwee. 

101 


102  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

methods  of  transfer  are  occupying  the  attention  of  all  shipping  men 
and  terminal  engineers  and  require  most  careful  stiady. 

The  lack  of  standard  practice  is  conspicuous  in  both  cases.  For 
many  years  past  a  storm  of  argument  has  raged  concerning  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  different  types  of  transfer  equipment.  Some  authori- 
ties have  called  the  ship-loading  methods  used  in  the  United  States 
archaic.  There  is  no  doubt  about  the  antiquity;  sufficient  historical 
'  evidence  shows  that  the  side-port  method  of  transfer  was  used  when 
the  Phoenicians  dominated  the  commerce  of  the  Mediterranean,  800 
to  1000  B.  c. 

The  lack  of  standardization  results  in  much  inefficiency,  confu- 
sion, and  loss  of  time ;  therefore,  greater  expense,  a  drag  on  our  com- 
merce, and  an  element  in  the  high  cost  of  living. 

The  ultimate  gain  by  standardization  of  methods  and  by  the 
construction  of  piers  properly  planned  for  all  the  purposes  to  which 
a  pier  may  be  subjected  would  result  in  an  enormous  saving.  The 
cost  of  handling,  cost  of  transfer,  and  cost  of  holding  the  ship  in  port 
could  be  reduced  materially. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  study  of  the  more  universal  methods  of 
cargo  transfer  it  is  worth  while  to  consider,  for  a  few  moments,  some 
of  the  reasons  for  the  great  diversity  in  methods,  and  also  some  of 
the  economic  factors  underlying  the  choice  of  equipment. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  the  great  diversity  in  handling 
methods.  The  principal  one,  of  course,  is  that  of  inertia — the 
characteristic  of  the  human  mind  to  be  diverted  with  difficulty  from 
a  habit  once  made.  The  superintendent  of  each  pier  or  wharf  has  his 
own  method  of  loading  and  unloading  and  enforces  his  ideas  on 
the  longshoremen  working  under  him.  The  longshoremen,  being  a 
more  or  less  floating  collection,  pick  up  various  ideas  in  their  career, 
and  when  one  of  them  rises  to  fill  the  position  of  pier  superintendent 
or  boss  stevedore  he  has  accumulated  his  own  opinions  as  to  how 
transfer  should  be  done  and  sees  that  his  ideas  are  carried  out  on  his 
own  pier  at  least.  Having  derived  his  methods  out  of  his  own  long 
experience,  he  is  naturally  very  skeptical  concerning  new  methods 
with  which  he  is  not  familiar.  The  chief  stevedore  of  a  steamship 
line,  or  of  a  stevedore  company,  is  so  important  to  the  working  of 
the  company  that  it  hesitates  to  enforce  upon  him  any  new  devices 
that  do  not  appeal  to  his  fancy. 

As  a  result  of  this  mental  inertia,  the  methods  actually  employed 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    I.  METHODS  OF  TRANSFER      103 

differ  widely  from  one  pier  to  another.  There  has  been  a  storm  of 
argument,  which  is  still  going  on,  concerning  the  relative  merits  of 
pier  and  quay  systems,  of  wharf  cranes  and  deck-winch  systems,  of 
continuous  conveyors  and  rope  falls,  and  all  the  other  various  combi- 
nations of  "new-fangled"  ideas  that  are  meeting  with  opposition 
from  the  old  crews.  A  conspicuous  example  of  diversity  of  opinion 
is  the  argument  that  has  been  raging  between  the  Society  of  Termi- 
nal Engineers,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  New  York  port  authori- 
ties, on  the  other,  concerning  the  type  of  construction  that  should  be 
adopted  for  the  Staten  Island  piers.  The  astounding  thing  has  been 
the  tenacity  with  which  the  so-called  "old  and  experienced  steamship 
men"  have  clung  to  the  antiquated  systems  of  pier  construction  and 
equipment  that  have  grown  up  at  the  Port  of  New  York  and  else- 
where because  of  certain  historical  conditions.  This  is  an  excellent 
example  of  inertia.  The  piers  of  New  York  were  designed  in  their 
present  form  not  because  that  was  the  most  efficient  form  but 
because  of  certain  limitations.  The  New  York  piers  were  built  at 
the  ends  of  the  streets  because  the  city  had  the  right  to  the  land  under 
water  at  the  extension  of  the  streets.  Therefore,  the  pier  was  limited 
to  the  width  of  the  street.  It  was  also  limited  in  length  by  the  army 
engineers  because  of  certain  rules  regarding  tidal  prisms  and  other 
factors. 

The  steamship  lines  of  New  York  have  gotten  on  more  or  less 
satisfactorily  in  spite  of  the  difficulties  of  the  specified  layout  of  their 
piers,  and  they  have  come  to  believe  that  the  only  way  to  operate 
a  pier  is  to  operate  it  exactly  in  the  way  that  they  have  been 
forced  to  adopt  by  circumstances.  Like  the  prisoner  who  had  slept 
on  "his  hard  couch  for  ten  years  and,  therefore,  could  not  become 
accustomed  to  a  hair  mattress,  so  have  many  steamship  companies 
and  their  superintendents,  stevedores,  and  longshoremen  become  so 
accustomed  to  the  cramped  quarters  of  the  inadequate  New  York 
piers  that  they  cannot  see  the  comforts  of  a  new  order  of  things 
that  would  follow  a  liberation  from  the  enforced  confinement  imposed 
by  the  historical  background  of  the  Manhattan  water  front. 

It  is  not  astonishing  that  the  old  line  steamship  men  have  been 
cramped  like  a  Chinese  lady's  foot  in  their  attitude  toward  water-front 
improvement.  Even  very  progressive  and  enlightened  harbor  engi- 
neers have  maintained  that  the  New  York  pier  system  is  superior  to 
some  of  the  most  modern  and  efficient  European  systems  that  were 


104  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

built  according  to  well  thought-out  plans  and  not  forced  into  a 
straight-jacket  of  existing  circumstances.2 

Striking  examples  of  inertia  in  freight-handling  methods  may  be 
seen  along  the  newly  finished  New  York  State  Barge  Canal,  where 
modern  equipment  is  allowed  to  stand  idle  while  methods  of  thirty 
years  ago  are  continued  in  practice.  The  old  boatmen  became  so 
accustomed  to  their  methods  of  transfer  from  canal  barge  to  shore 
that  it  is  an  astounding  fact  that  the  newly  equipped  terminals  are 
hardly  used.  At  many  of  the  barge  canal  terminals  the  State  of  New 
York  has  provided  a  locomotive  steam  crane  that  operates  on  flat 
wheels  and  can  proceed  to  any  point  along  the  wharf.  This  steam 
crane  is  very  easily  operated  and  can  handle  rapidly  light  and  heavy 
drafts  from  the  barge  to  the  shore.  Nevertheless,  the  boatmen  will 
allow  this  crane  to  stand  with  steam  up — the  use  of  it  costing  only  a 
nominal  fee — and  will  proceed  with  their  old  methods.  A  common 
type  in  use  is  the  horse-and-fall  rig,  or  "horse  elevator."  A  mast 
and  boom  is  rigged  on  shore  with  a  simple  block  and  tackle ;  a  fall 
line  from  the  hook  passes  over  a  pulley  at  the  end  of  the  boom  and  to 
the  foot  of  the  mast.  At  the  other  end  of  the  line  is  attached  a  whiffle 
tree  to  which  a  horse  or  mule  is  hitched.  The  hook  is  attached  to 
the  draft,  the  signalman  calls  out,  and  the  driver  and  the  horse 
walk  away  from  the  base  of  the  mast  and  lift  the  draft  to  above  the 
level  of  the  deck  of  the  canal  boat.  It  is  then  swung  back  and 
forth  a  few  times  and  at  the  right  moment  "Let  go"  is  called  and  the 
draft  is  dropped  on  to  the  deck.  It  is  then  trundled  with  hand 
trucks  across  a  gangplank  to  the  shore,  or  it  may  be  swung  across 
from  the  edge  of  the  boat  to  the  edge  of  the  wharf.  The  boatman 
will  lose  an  hour  going  down  to  a  livery  stable  and  getting  a  horse 
to  enact  this  antiquated  performance  of  unloading  when  a  modern 
power  crane,  with  steam  up,  will  stand  by  unused.  Iron  ore  and 
coal  were  handled  on  the  Great  Lakes  in  this  same  way  thirty  years 
ago  at  a  cost  of  50  to  60  cents  a  ton,  and  at  a  speed  of  150  tons  a  day. 
It  is  now  handled  by  mechanical  means,  1,000  tons  an  hour,  at  a 
cost  of  2  or  3  cents  a  ton.  It  seems  impossible  to  believe  that  one 
may  go  to  the  modern  port  of  Philadelphia  and  see  the  horse  eleva- 
tor unloading  alongside  a  modern  pier. 

The  problem  of  selecting  wharf  equipment  is  not  simple.     No 

*For  example,  see  the  report  on  "New  York  Water  Terminal  and 
Transfer  Facilities,"  H.  of  R.  Doc.  No.  226,  63 rd  Congress,  ist  Session,  1913. 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    I.  METHODS  OF  TRANSFER     105 

single  method  is  applicable  to  all  commodities,  vessels,  piers,  and 
ports.  The  tendency  is  to  ignore  some  of  the  many  variables  that 
are  found  in  the  problem. 

A  quadratic  equation  with  five  variables  cannot  be  solved  unless 
four  of  the  variables  are  held  constant,  while  a  value  is  obtained 
for  the  fifth,  the  process  being  repeated  until  values  are  obtained  for 
all.  But  many  port  authorities,  terminal  engineers,  and  shipping 
men  have  forgotten  this  algebraic  principle  and  jumped  to  a  solution 
when  having  the  value  of  one  variable  only.  To  solve  the  problem 
for  one  port  and  one  type  of  merchandise  alone  is  an  enormous  piece 
of  work,  and  one  that  has  never  been  adequately  undertaken.3 

The  most  complete  study  of  the  subject  is  that  just  completed  by 
the  New  York-New  Jersey  Port  and  Harbor  Commission  under  Mr. 
B.  F.  Cresson,  Jr.  It  employed  a  large  force  of  men  and  took  two 
years  for  the  work.  Its  conclusions  are  extremely  valuable.  The 
results  obtained  by  this  very  extensive  analysis  of  port  facilities 
should  be  an  aid  to  all  water-front  problems. 

The  questions  of  cargo  transfer  and  handling  and  wharf  layout 
must  be  solved  for  each  particular  case.  Even  the  horse  elevator  of 
the  old  canal  boatmen  has  its  place.  One  may  pass  by  and  remark, 
How  is  it  possible  that  these  antiquated  methods  are  being  used? 
However,  by  a  close  observation  of  the  facts  in  the  case  one  may  find 
that  the  horse  and  fall  is  the  cheapest  way  to  unload  that  barge  under 
the  circumstances,  even  if  wages  for  longshoremen  are  $7  a  day.  In 
the  handling  and  transfer  of  cargo  or  the  handling  of  any  material 
one  is  always  confronted  with  the  problem  of  "earning  the  overhead." 
For  any  given  mechanical  equipment  there  must  be  sufficient  cargo 
handled  per  year  to  make  the  saving  per  ton  pay  for  the  expense  of 
installing  the  equipment.  Two  $25,000  cranes,  or  a  total  expense  for 
cranes  of  $50,000,  on  a  wharf  where  they  will  transfer  only  100,000 
tons  of  freight  a  year  would  mean  an  initial  cost  of  50  cents  for  every 
ton  of  freight  handled.  Figuring  depreciation  at  20  per  cent,  which 
is,  of  course,  very  liberal,  plus  the  interest  on  the  investment  and  plus 
the  cost  of  operation,  it  may  be  found  that  it  would  be  cheaper  to 
handle  freight  at  the  wharf  in  question  by  the  old  horse-elevator 
method. 

In  proceeding   to  the  study  of  both  side-port   and   deck-hatch 

3T.  R.  Taylor,  Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes. 


io6  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

methods  of  transfer  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  essential  fact 
that  each  case  must  be  solved  on  its  merits.  The  main  energy  of  the 
study  will  be  devoted  to  things  as  they  are,  rather  than  to  possible 
improvements.  However,  the  possibility  of  improvement  must  never 
be  lost  to  view. 

TRANSFER  THROUGH  SIDE  PORTS 

The  prevailing  practice  in  freight  transfer  on  harbor  lighters 
and  on  coastwise,  river,  and  Great  Lakes  package-freight  vessels  is 
through  a  side  port  or  an  opening  in  the  side  of  the  vessel  on  to 
its  main  deck.  Side-port  vessels  have  a  shallow  hold,  and  the 
volume  of  freight  carried  in  the  hold  is  not  comparable  in  amount 
with  that  carried  in  the  hold  of  an  ocean-going  vessel.  Particularly 
in  the  shallow-draft  steamboats  used  in  river  navigation  there  is  little 
or  no  cargo  space  in  the  hold.  The  main  object  in  carrying  cargo  on 
the  deck  is  to  afford  rapid  and  easy  transfer  of  small  quantities  of 
merchandise  at  ports  of  call  along  the  river  or  lake  in  a  port-to-port 
service.  The  system  of  deck  loads  has  certain  advantages  for  this 
kind  of  service. 

Transfer  by  Unassisted  Man  Power. — The  practice  of  carry- 
ing freight  on  the  backs  or  shoulders  or  heads  of  persons  is  called 
"steamboating."  It  is  confined  largely  to  rivers  where  the  vessels 
and  the  packages  of  freight  are  small.  Even  in  these  places  it  is 
being  eliminated  by  more  improved  methods.  It  has  been  common  to 
New  Orleans  and  to  the  levees  of  the  Mississippi  River  where  colored 
longshoremen  carry  freight  on  their  backs,  heads,  or  shoulders.  In 
many  parts  of  the  world  vessels  are  still  loaded  by  a  great  mass  of 
unassisted  man  power  just  as  in  the  days  of  the  Egyptians  and  the 
Phoenicians.  In  some  parts  of  the  West  Indies  vessels  are  bunkered 
by  native  women,  who  carry  small  baskets  of  coal  on  their  heads  in  a 
long  procession.  At  New  Orleans  the  ruling  of  the  National  Ad- 
justment Commission  is :  "The  practice  of  'steamboating,'  or  carry- 
ing freight  in  and  out  of  ships  or  in  and  out  of  cars,  will  be  reduced  to 
the  smallest  practical  minimum."  * 

Transfer  by  Hand  Truck. — The  common  method  through- 
out the  United  States  and  many  other  countries  in  all  side-port  load- 

*  Coastwise  Longshoremen  Award  at  New  Orleans,  October  21,  1918, 
Nat.  Adj.  Com.,  1918,  126.  See  also  Thomas  R.  Taylor,  Stowage  of  Ship 
Cargoes. 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    I.  METHODS  OF  TRANSFER     107 

ing  and  unloading  is  the  use  of  the  hand  truck.  This  is  a  very 
simple  operation,  particularly  along  canals  and  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
where  there  is  little  change  in  the  water  level  due  to  rise  and  fall  of 
the  river  or  tide.  The  system  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  employed 
in  loading  a  box  car.  A  gangplank  is  laid  between  the  wharf  and 
the  deck  of  the  vessel,  over  which  the  longshoremen  push  hand 
trucks  with  their  loads. 

On  the  Great  Lakes  the  longshoremen  are  so  jealous  of  the 
privilege  of  pushing  hand  trucks  back  and  forth  that  they  fight 
individually  and  as  a  union  any  efforts  to  introduce  labor-saving 
equipment.  The  longshoremen  at  the  head  of  the  Lakes  and  at 
Buffalo  will  carry  only  three  bags  of  flour  on  a  hand  truck  at  one 
time;  and  they  refuse  to  allow  the  transfer  movement  to  be  assisted 
by  mechanical  means.  A  barge  line  at  Buffalo  installed  a  crane  to 
transfer  merchandise  across  railroad  tracks  to  a  freight  shed,  but 
the  unions  forced  the  abandonment  of  the  crane  and  the  bridging 
over  of  the  tracks.  The  most  simple  mechanical  conveyor  for  side- 
port  transfer  is  the  continuous  chain  and  lug  system,  or  Reno  con- 
veyor. This  consists  of  an  endless  chain  run  over  sprocket  wheels 
and  driven  by  an  electric  motor.  Lugs  protruding  from  the  chain  at 
intervals  engage  the  bar  or  axle  of  a  hand  truck  and  pull  the  hand 
truck  along.  This  mechanism  has  been  particularly  helpful  at  Bos- 
ton, New  Orleans  and  other  places  where  there  is  a  wide  range  in  the 
water  level.  It  is  obvious  that  if  the  hand-truck  load  is  helped  up 
the  incline  of  the  gangplank  in  such  a  manner  that  the  longshore- 
man has  only  to  move  himself  and  keep  the  hand  truck  steady,  a 
greater  dispatch  is  afforded. 

^land-truck  Transfer  and  Loose-pulley  Fall. — Package- 
freight  vessels  on  the  Great  Lakes  carry  from  four  to  five  thousand 
tons  of  freight,  partly  on  the  deck  and  partly  in  the  hold.  In 
loading  bags  of  flour  to  the  hold  of  the  vessel  the  longshoremen  pass 
in  procession  across  the  gangplank  onto  the  main  deck  and  up  to 
the  edge  of  the  hatch,  tip  the  hand  truck  over  and  the  flour  bags 
drop  into  the  hold.  As  the  distance  is  only  12  or  13  or  14  feet,  the 
fall  is  not  serious.  After  dumping  a  truckload  the  longshoreman 
proceeds  with  his  empty  truck  around  the  hatch,  out  over  another 
gangplank,  and  back  to  the  loading  point.  To  hoist  the  hold 
cargo  to  the  deck  for  discharging  the  lake  vessels  have  developed 
a  loose  pulley  and  fall.  Power  is  supplied  through  an  ordinary 


io8  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

shop  transmission  shaft  driven  from  the  engine  room.  At  each 
hatch  there  is  a  fixed  and  a  loose  pulley  with  a  belt  running  to  a  small 
wooden  drum  over  the  hatch.  The  belt  is  shifted  from  one  pulley  to 
the  other  by  a  lever,  exactly  as  in  a  machine  shop.  The  drum  winds 
or  unwinds  a  pendent — a  fall  rope  with  a  hook.  Discharging 
is  performed  as  follows:  The  fall  rope  having  been  lowered  into 
the  hold  and  hooked  to  a  draft  of  bags  of  flour,  for  instance,  a 
signal  is  given  to  the  man  at  the  lever,  who  throws  the  belt  from 
the  loose  pulley  to  the  fixed  pulley.  The  load  is  lifted  to  above 
the  level  of  the  deck,  and  when  the  signalman  indicates  to  let  go, 
the  belt  is  shifted  from  the  fixed  pulley  back  to  the  loose  pulley  at 
the  same  time  that  the  draft  is  swung  sidewise  on  to  the  deck.  It  is 
unhooked,  the  hook  falls  into  the  hold  for  the  next  draft,  while  the 
longshoremen  pick  up  the  bags  of  flour,  load  them  on  trucks,  and 
push  them  ashore  across  the  gangplank.  The  motion  is  a  positive 
and  direct  one  and  works  very  well. 

Transfer  by  Mechanical  Conveyors. — Considerable  progress 
has  been  made  in  the  introduction  of  mechanical  belt  conveyors  for 
side-port  transfer.  These  conveyors  are  moving  gangplanks  that 
make  unnecessary  the  travel  of  the  stevedore  with  his  hand  truck 
from  the  main  deck  of  the  vessel  to  the  deck  of  the  wharf.  The 
difference  in  level  is  not  important  within  wide  limits,  as  the  con- 
veyors can  be  fitted  with  cleats  that  make  it  possible  to  carry 
bags,  barrels,  and  small  boxes  to  an  angle  of  30  degrees  or  more  from 
the  horizontal.  For  example:  In  discharging  flour  in  bags  as  just 
described,  when  the  bags  are  landed  on  the  main  deck  from  the 
loose-pulley  fall,  instead  of  being  loaded  on  to  a  hand  truck  and 
taken  across  the  gangplank  to  the  shore  by  man  power,  the  bags 
are  thrown  on  to  the  constantly  moving  belt  conveyor.  The  con- 
veyor will  carry  them  across  to  the  longshoremen  inside  the  ware- 
house or  transit  shed,  where  the  bags  may  be  stacked  or  tiered  by 
tiering  machinery.  These  portable  horizontal  conveyors  are  gaining 
in  popularity.  An  excellent  example  is  to  be  found  on  the  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal  at  Schenectady,  where  the  General  Electric  Com- 
pany uses  one  continuously  for  loading  and  unloading  canal  barges. 

The  gravity  conveyor  or  roller  gangplank  is  worthy  of  notice. 
For  transfer  from  a  higher  to  a  slightly  lower  level  it  is  possible  to 
use  a  roller  gangplank  without  power.  This  is  a  very  simple  device 
consisting  of  a  frame  with  rollers  between  them.  The  rollers  are 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    I.  METHODS  OF  TRANSFER      109 

slightly  concave  to  direct  the  package  to  the  middle  of  the  conveyor 
and  they  turn  on  ball-bearings.  A  box  placed  upon  one  end  of  the 
conveyor  runs  by  gravity  down  to  the  other  end,  where  it  is  picked 
up  by  the  longshoremen  and  tiered,  stowed,  or  otherwise  handled. 
All  these  devices  may  be  used  in  combination,  and  it  depends  upon 
the  ingenuity,  enlightenment,  and  alertness  of  the  wharf  superin- 
tendent and  boss  stevedore  in  each  case  to  utilize  such  simple  or 
elaborate  equipment  as  is  justified  by  the  amount  of  cargo  to  be 
handled  and  the  saving  that  could  be  accomplished  thereby. 

Side-port  loading  and  unloading  is  bound  to  disappear  before 
the  mechanical  transfer  age.  In  certain  services,  however,  we  may 
expect  a  certain  amount  of  side-port  transfer  for  many  years  to 
come. 

TRANSFER  THROUGH  OVER-ALL  HATCHES 

A  very  large  proportion  of  all  ocean-going  freight  is  transferred 
through  deck  hatches,  and  the  methods  in  use  must  be  carefully 
understood.  These  methods  may  be  divided  into  several  groups,  as 
follows : 5 

1.  Ship's  tackle  used  exclusively. 

a.  One  winch  and  one  boom  and  skids  or  planks. 

b.  Two  winches  and  two  booms. 

2.  Ship's  tackle  used  in  connection  with  cargo  masts  and  pier 

winches. 

3.  Cranes  on  the  wharf. 

4.  Floating  cranes    (particularly  for  heavy  lifts). 

5.  Specialized  equipment. 

As  ocean  carriers  must  be  prepared  to  go  into  ports  of  every 
degree  of  development,  or  lack  of  development,  they  must  also  be 
prepared  to  get  along  without  any  port  facilities  whatsoever  except 
the  lighters  or  small  boats  that  may  come  alongside.  For  this  reason 
all  modern  cargo  carriers  have  a  full  equipment  of  booms  and  deck 
winches  for  transferring  cargo.  As  the  transfer  of  merchandise  to 
and  from  the  ship  is  done  at  the  expense  and  responsibility  of  the 

"MacElwee,  Ports  and  Terminal  Facilities.  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co., 
1918.  Taylor,  Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  For.  &  Dom. 
Com.,  1920. 


no  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

ship,  there  has  been  a  natural  development  of  the  transfer  machinery 
on  the  ship.  Bills  of  lading  include,  in  the  freight  rate,  transfer 
from  alongside  (within  reach  of  the  ship's  sling)  to  the  hold  of  the 
vessel  and  stowage  therein  of  all  usual  cargo  except  packages  of 
greater  weight  than  2,000  pounds,  or  of  such  form  as  not  to  be 
handled  readily  by  the  ship's  equipment.  Where  there  are  pieces  of 
cargo  greater  than  2,000  pounds,  special  arrangements  are  made 
and  charges  fixed  accordingly.  In  the  considerations  that  are  to 
follow  there  is  in  mind  miscellaneous  cargo  in  packages  of  less  than 
2,OOO  pounds ;  this  excludes  for  the  present  all  the  very  heavy  pack- 
ages and  also  bulk  cargo. 

Prevailing  American  System;. — Inasmuch  as  the  prevailing 
American  shipping  practice  puts  the  burden  of  transfer  upon  the 
ship,  there  have  been  developed  practically  no  devices  or  mechanical 
equipment  on  the  wharf  itself,  other  than  the  transit  shed — a  cover- 
ing to  shelter  the  merchandise.  The  interest  in  the  study  of  wharf 
administration  by  aspiring  young  shipping  men  centers  in  the  pre- 
vailing practices  with  which  they  will  be  confronted,  rather  than  in 
changes  advocated  in  many  quarters. 

The  ship's  equipment  consists  usually  of  deck  winches  run  by 
steam  from  the  boiler  room  and  of  short  stubby  masts  with  a  number 
of  booms  fitted  with  blocks  and  ropes  or  cables,  through  which  the 
energy  of  the  winches  is  brought  to  bear  on  the  merchandise.  Winches 
will  be  taken  up  in  detail  later,  but  the  "business  end"  of  the 
winch  is  a  drum  and  a  "drum  end,"  sometimes  called  "winch  head," 
or  "drum-shaft  extension."  This  is  a  steel  spool  at  the  end  of  the 
axle  or  shaft  of  the  drum  and  free  at  one  end.  Lines  are  fastened 
to  the  drum  and  are  wound  up  thereon  and  unwound.  The  drum 
end  with  the  proper  skill  of  the  longshoremen  gives  greater  flexibility. 
The  drum-end  man  is  able  to  take  a  few  turns  of  rope  around  the 
spool,  looping  it  in  such  a  manner  that  he  can  maintain  the  proper 
degree  of  bite  or  friction  and  control  the  speed  of  the  fall  by  the 
amount  of  slip.  The  line  passes  over  blocks  at  the  end  of  the  boom. 
For  additional  lifting  power  double  and  triple  blocks  are  sometimes 
used.  With  light  drafts  of  about  1,000  to  2,000  pounds  a  simple 
block  is  used  to  obtain  greater  speed.  A  hatch  is  an  opening  which  is 
boarded  over  at  each  deck  it  passes  through.  The  hatch  cover  below 
the  top  deck  is  called  the  ceiling.  Hatch  openings  when  cleared 
extend  from  the  deck  of  the  vessel  through  to  the  hold.  The  planks 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    I.  METHODS  OF  TRANSFER     111 

under  the  hatch  cover  and  in  each  deck  rest  upon  steel  stringers  called 
"strongbacks"  that  run  either  athwartship  or  fore-and-aft  across  the 
opening.  The  hatch  opening  on  the  top  deck  should  be  fitted  with  a 
coaming  2^2  to  3  feet  high  to  prevent  longshoremen  from  slipping 
into  the  hold. 

To  clear  a  hatch  consists  in  rolling  back  the  tarpaulin  that  covers 
the  planks  and  removing  the  planks  by  hand  and  setting  them  to 
one  side.  By  means  of  the  ship's  tackle  the  beams  or  "strongbacks" 
are  lifted  out  and  put  at  one  side.  If  the  hatch  is  very  large  and  the 
packages  to  be  loaded  are  small  only  one  part  of  the  hatch  needs  to 
be  cleared.  Usually  where  the  packages  are  small  and  the  hatch 
large  the  entire  hatch  is  cleared  and  two  sets  of  tackle  are  used  with 
two  gangs  of  men  and  two  falls. 

Brief  Description  of  Three  Common  Methods. — The  three 
simplest  methods  of  transfer  by  ship's  winches  are:  (l)  a  single 
winch  with  a  single  boom  and  fall,  and  a  skid  extending  to  the  wharf ; 
(2)  use  of  two  deck  winches  and  two  booms,  one  extending  over  the 
hatch  with  the  up-and-down  fall,  the  other  extending  over  the  ship's 
side  and  carrying  the  burton  fall,  that  is,  the  "fall-and-burton"  sys- 
tem; (3)  a  combination  of  the  fall-and-burton  system  in  which  the 
burton  boom  instead  of  a  cargo  mast  on  the  wharf  is  used.  In  all 
of  these  cases,  if  the  deck  winch  is  out  of  order  or  if  so  desired,  port- 
able winches  on  the  wharves  may  be  used  for  operating  the  falls. 

Single  Boom  and  Up-and-Down  Fall  with  a  Skid. — The  simplest 
method,  though  not  used  to  any  great  extent  at  the  present  time,  is 
by  use  of  a  single  boom  and  skid.  One  cargo  boom  is  placed  extend- 
ing over  the  hatch  opening.  A  fall  through  a  block  on  this  boom  is 
operated  by  a  single  deck  winch.  One  end  of  the  fall  is  wound  on 
the  winch  drum;  at  the  other  end  is  a  hook  that  must  be  heavy 
enough  to  draw  down  the  empty  rope  or  .weighted  for  that  purpose. 
The  draft  is  brought  to  the  edge  of  the  wharf.  From  the  wharf  to 
the  deck  of  the  ship  and  from  the  deck  coaming  to  the  hatch  coaming 
extend  heavy  planks.  The  longshoreman  carries  the  empty  hook  to 
the  edge  of  the  deck  and  throws  it  on  to  the  wharf  where  it  is  hooked 
on  to  the  draft.  The  winch  is  started  and  slides  or  drags  the  draft 
along  the  gangplank  skid.  When  the  load  clears  the  ship's  side  it 
swings  over  the  hatch  by  gravity.  The  stevedore,  by  means  of  a  guide 
line  that  he  dexterously  throws  around  the  fall  rope  just  above  the 
hook,  prevents  the  draft  from  swinging  athwartship  and  banging 


112  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

against  the  boards  or  the  coamings  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  hatch 
(see  Fig.  27). 

The  draft  being  brought  to  rest  above  the  hatch  is  then  lowered, 
by  throwing  out  the  lines  on-  the  drum  end  or  reversing  the  deck 
winch,  until  it  reaches  the  point  above  the  floor  of  the  hold  when 
"stop"  is  signaled.  It  is  then  lowered  slowly  to  the  hold,  being 
swung  to  one  side  or  the  other  as  desired.  When  the  hook  is  liberated 
the  stevedore  snaps  the  hoisting  line  and  throws  the  hook  dexterously 
over  the  side  of  the  ship  on  to  the  wharf  where  it  is  ready  for  the 
next  load.  With  practice  considerable  speed  may  be  developed  in 
handling  drafts  in  this  way. 


FlG.    27. — STOPPING   THE   SWING   WHEN    LOADING    WITH    SINGLE    BOOM 

AND  SKID.      (Courtesy  of  Lidgerwood.} 

The  Burton-and-Fall  or  Yard-and-Stay  System. — In  spite  of  the 
possible  damage  to  the  cargo  by  the  single  fall  and  skid  method  just 
described,  it  is  used  considerably  for  loading.  When  it  comes  to 
unloading,  however,  the  difficulty  of  bringing  the  loaded  draft 
athwartship  in  order  to  lower  it  overside  is  apparent.  When  loading 
it  swings  by  gravity  over  the  hatch,  but  when  unloading  the  drag 
that  is  necessary  to  carry  the  load  athwartship  and  then  to  lower  it 
to  the  lighter  or  the  pier  deck  is  considerable.  The  burton-and-fall 
or  two-mast  system,  has  therefore  been  developed  and  is  common 
practice  for  all  ship's  tackle  rigs  (see  Fig.  28). 

In  analyzing  the  movement  of  a  draft  of  merchandise  between  a 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    I.  METHODS  OF  TRANSFER     113 

wharf  and  hold  we  find  the  following:  (l)  elevation,  a  vertical  move- 
ment from  a  wharf  to  a  high  position  to  clear  the  bulwark  of  the 
vessel;  (2)  a  horizontal  movement  athwartship  to  the  middle  of  the 
hatch;  (3)  a  vertical  movement  down  to  the  point  of  deposit  in  the 
vessel.  In  unloading,  these  three  are  reversed.  This  analysis  dis- 
closes that  there  are  up-and-down  movements  at  two  points,  one  above 

D 


FIG.  28. — YARD  AND  STAY  OR  BURTON  SYSTEM.     (Courtesy  Dept.  of  Wharves, 
Docks  and  Ferries,  Philadelphia.} 

the  hold,  and  one  above  the  wharf,  and  a  horizontal  movement  to 
cover  the  distance  between  these  two  vertical  movements.  In  practice 
the  movements  are  not  sharply  denned  but  merge  one  into  the  other, 
depending  on  the  skill  of  the  longshoremen  running  the  winches.  In 
order  to  accomplish  the  three  movements  with  ship's  tackle  the  two- 
boom  and  two-winch  system  have  become  general,  in  which  there  are 
two  whips  or  ropes  attached  to  a  single  hook,  but  operated  by  sep- 
arate winches  over  separate  booms. 

A  glance  at  any  of  the  modern  cargo  carriers  discloses  the  short, 


114  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

stubby  mast  with  a  forest  of  booms  built  around  the  base  of  it.  A 
mast  with  its  booms,  located  between  two  hatches,  is  surrounded 
usually  by  four  donkey  engines  or  winches.  The  location  of  the 
four  winches  at  the  base  of  one  of  these  masts  of  a  modern  cargo 
carrier  is  shown  in  Figure  29.  This  illustration  shows  the  instal- 


FlG.   29.— MAST,  BOOMS  AND  WINCHES  BETWEEN  TWO   HATCHES. 
(Courtesy  of  Lidgeriuood.} 

lation  of  four  single  friction  drum  winches  grouped  around  the  mast, 
two  winches  for  each  hatch. 

Two  booms  and  two  winches  are  generally  used  at  each  hatch ; 
one  boom  is  swung  over  the  center  of  the  hatch  carrying  the  up-and- 
down  fall  and  hook,  and  the  other  is  swung  outboard  from  the  vessel 
in  order  to  reach  clear  of  the  vessel's  side  and  over  the  wharf.  Over 
this  boom  the  second  winch  operates  the  so-called  "burton  fall"  or  the 
"outboard  fall."  The  terms  given  to  these  two  lines  or  whips  are  not 
standardized,  but  for  the  uses  here  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
outboard  line  is  called  "the  burton"  and  the  hatch  line  is  called 
"the  fall."  One  must  not  be  confused  by  the  fact  that  the  outboard 
line  is  sometimes  called  the  burton  fall  to  distinguish  it  from  the  up- 
and-down  or  hatch  fall.  The  movements  of  the  winches  in  the  two- 
boom  system  with  two  winches  may  be  analyzed  as  follows  in  trans- 
ferring a  draft  from  the  deck  of  a  lighter  or  the  wharf  to  the  hold  of 
the  ship :  ( 1 )  The  far-side  winch,  operating  the  fall,  has  paid  out  the 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    I.  METHODS  OF  TRANSFER     115 

rope  that  hangs  over  the  rail  of  the  vessel ;  the  near  winch,  operat- 
ing the  burton,  starts  to  lift  the  cargo  and  lifts  it  to  a  point  suffi- 
ciently high  to  clear  obstacles  such  as  the  bulwark  rail  and  the  hatch 
coamings;  (2)  the  far-side  winch  begins  to  pull  on  the  fall  rope, 
thus  drawing  the  load  athwartship ;  (3)  the  burton  winch  lets  go 
gradually,  thus  slacking  off  the  fall  until  it. comes  to  rest  above  the 
hatch;  (4)  the  fall  now  lowers  the  draft  into  the  hold,  trailing  the 
slack  burton  rope  after  it. 

The  burton-and-fall  two-boom  and  two-winch  system  is  so  rapid, 
direct,  and  efficient  that  there  is  plenty  of  ground  for  debate  as  to 
the  superiority  of  wharf  cranes,  inasmuch  as  vessels  must  be  pre- 
pared to  meet  all  difficulties  and  must,  therefore,  have  the  necessary 
deck-hoisting  equipment  with  them  at  all  times.  The  system, 
although  it  requires  two  winch  operators,  is  very  direct;  the  move- 
ment across  the  ship  and  into  the  hold  being  quite  rapid.  The 
rapidity  of  this  "diabolo"  movement — it  much  resembles  the  old  game 
of  diabolo  where  the  little  spool  is  kept  spinning  on  a  string  between 
two  sticks — depends  largely  upon  the  skill  of  the  drum-end  man. 
He  deserves  particular  consideration. 

The  Drum-end  Man. — As  men- 
tioned in  passing,  and  as  will  be 
described  in  detail  under  the  de- 
scription of  deck  winches  in  par- 
ticular, a  deck  winch  consists  of  a 
drum  on  which  a  rope  is  wound  up 
and  paid  out,  and  a  spool  fastened 
to  the  extended  axis  of  the  drum,  FIG.  SO.-DRUM-END  MAN  WORKING" 
known  as  the  "gypsy  head,"  "nig-  A  DOCK  WINCH. 

ger  head"  or  "drum  end."  This  spool  extending  out  from  the  side  of 
the  winch  should  be  from  about  16  inches  to  about  24  inches  in 
diameter.  Its  use  is  very  popular,  but  the  success  of  its  use  depends 
entirely  upon  the  skill  of  the  drum-end  man  (see  Fig.  30). 

The  work  of  the  drum-end  man  is  difficult  to  learn,  and  unless 
there  is  proficiency  it  is  less  speedy  than  a  drum.  The  fall  runs 
from  the  block  on  the  boom  to  the  drum  end,  around  which  a  few 
loose  turns  of  the  rope  are  taken  and  a  length  of  it  is  coiled  up  behind 
the  drum-end  man.  The  nice  adjustment  between  the  burton  lift  and 
the  fall  lift,  the  tightening  of  one  whip  and  the  slacking  of  the 
other,  and  the  lifting  of  one  and  the  lowering  away  of  the  other, 


n6  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

is  controlled  by  two  individuals,  and  their  close  harmony  in  working 
together  depends  upon  their  skill  in  keeping  a  flexible  movement,  by 
means  of  the  amount  of  pressure  or  "bite"  of  the  rope  maintained  by 
the  drum-end  man. 

The  fall  rope  is  wound  around  the  drum  end  a  number  of  times 
according  to  the  work  it  has  to  do.  A  first  coil  must  be  put  on  with 
great  care,  for  if  it  is  put  on  with  a  kink  it  will  reduce  the  friction  and 
in  lifting  a  heavy  draft  the  rope  may  be  cut.  It  must  also  be  wound  on 
the  drum  end  in  the  direction  in  which  the  drum  revolves,  otherwise 
the  fall  will  unwind  itself,  and  it  must  be  wound  from  the  left  end 
of  the  spool  on  the  right-hand  winch,  and  from  the  right  end  of  the 
spool  on.  the  left-hand  winch.  After  the  rope  is  looped  correctly 
around  the  drum  end,  the  drum-end  man  regulates  the  "strike"  and 
the  "up-and-down  travel"  of  the  draft  by  causing  the  coils  to  slip 
or  to  bite  on  the  spool.  He  accomplishes  this  by  standing  behind 
the  winch  with  the  loose  end  of  the  fall  in  his  hands  and  pulling  just 
enough  to  get  the  proper  friction  to  take  up  the  slack  or  lift  the  load, 
or  he  lets  the  rope  slide  through  his  hands  just  enough  to  lower  the 
burden  into  the  hold.  The  drum-end  man  usually  wears  heavy 
gloves  to  prevent  the  rope  from  burning  his  hands. 

The  speed  of  raising  or  lowering  cargo  with  drum  ends  is  limited 
by  the  skill  of  the  stevedore  taking  up  the  slack  end  of  the  fall  and 
the  quality  of  his  judgment  in  maintaining  the  correct  bite  for  the 
various  sizes  and  positions  of  the  draft.  It  seldom  exceeds  170  feet 
per  minute.  As  the  speed  depends  largely  upon  the  work  of  the 
drum-end  man  operating,  the  matter  of  fatigue  plays  a  conspicuous 
part.  The  stevedore  fresh  in  the  morning  may  hoist  at  the  rate  of 
175  or  180  feet  a  minute,  but  as  the  afternoon  wanes  he  slows  up  to 
about  125  or  130  feet.  In  crane  operation,  where  there  is  practically 
no  physical  exertion  and  where  the  operation  is  more  mechanical  and 
less  dependent  upon  personal  skill,  the  same  rate  of  speed  is  main- 
tained throughout  the  day. 

It  is  believed  that  greater  hoisting  speed  could  be  accomplished  and 
maintained  by  using  winches  with  fixed  wire  rope  wound  around  the 
drum  and  a  speed  averaging  325  feet  a  minute  attained.  A  standard 
type  of  ship's  winch  reported  by  the  manufacturers  has  three-quarter 
inch  rope  to  hoist  loads  of  one-half  ton  100  feet  at  a  speed  of  400 
feet  per  minute ;  3-ton  loads  at  200  feet  per  minute ;  5-ton  loads  at 
120  feet  per  minute ;  and  8-ton  loads  at  reduced  speed,  the  full  rated 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    I.  METHODS  OF  TRANSFER      117 

capacity  being  10,000  pounds  maximum.  However  this  may  be, 
the  fact  still  outstands  that  in  the  transfer  movement  in  American 
ports  to-day  the  drum-end  man  is  a  very  important  factor. 

A  provisional  boom  or  yard  arm  is  sometimes  set  near  the  bulwark 
on  the  deck  of  the  ship  where  the  ship  does  not  carry  sufficient  booms. 
Older  vessels  and  some  smaller  vessels,  sailing  ships,  and  others  are 
not  sufficiently  equipped  with  cargo  booms,  and  it  is  necessary  to  set 
a  second  boom  to  handle  the  burton  in  the  yard-and-stay  or  burton- 
and-fall  method  as  described  above. 

Many  of  the  modern  cargo  carriers  are  equipped  with  two  cargo 
masts  stepped  off  center  instead  of  one  stepped  midships.  The  masts 
off  center  are  used  particularly  on  colliers  and  specially  designed  ore 
carriers.  Those  in  the  Swedish  and  Spanish  iron-ore  trade  to  Rot- 
terdam and  several  United  States  Navy  colliers  are  examples.  Many 
of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board  vessels  were  built  with  double 
masts  (Fig.  28).  The  object  of  the  double  mast  is  to  divide  the 
rigs  as  between  port  and  starboard  in  order  to  have  a  rig  for  the 
wharf  side  and  another  for  the  water  side  to  handle  goods  brought 
alongside  by  lighter  or  to  work  from  lighters  and  barges  on  both 
beams  when  anchored  "in  stream"  or  at  mooring  posts. 

Cargo  Mast. — A  cargo  mast  is  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  a 
wharf  or  pier ;  its  object  is  to  facilitate  the  burton-and-fall  two-hoist 
systems  that  have  just  been  described  and  liberate  for  other  uses 
the  ship's  burton,  or  outboard  boom,  and  the  winch  necessary  to 
operate  it.  With  only  two  winches  at  the  hatch  it  is  possible  to 
operate  only  one  burton  and  fall,  that  is,  to  keep  only  one  hook  in 
movement.  Burtoning  to  a  cargo  mast  and  operating  the  burton  fall 
by  means  of  a  pier  winch  liberates  one  winch  and  the  hook  and  the 
tackle  aboard  ship  for  other  purposes,  particularly  for  far-side  or 
water-delivery  freight.  It  very  often  happens  that  two  pier  winches 
are  used  to  operate  both  the  fall  and  the  burton  for  the  shore 
freight,  while  the  deck  winches  are  both  used  to  operate  the  burton 
and  fall  booms  to  take  cargo  overside  from  lighters.  In  this  case 
the  two  pier  winches  with  the  aid  of  one  of  the  ship's  booms  are 
performing  the  same  services  that  would  be  performed  by  a  crane. 
This  is  the  only  way  to  use  two  forces  or  gangs  to  a  hatch  and  work 
both  sides  of  the  ship  at  the  same  time. 

The  cargo  masts  with  which  modern  piers  are  provided  are  of 
several  types.  The  oldest  type  consists  of  strong,  wooden  masts 


u8  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

set  near  the  edge  of  the  pier  and  connected  with  one  another  near  their 
peak  by  a  stay ;  to  the  stay  are  fixed  stirrups  to  which  blocks  may  be 
attached.  A  later  type  was  developed  by  connecting  the  projections 
of  the  pier  column  by  a  rope  stay.  The  most  modern  type,  how- 
ever, replaces  the  stay  by  a  steel  beam.6 

The  type  of  modern  cargo  mast  now  in  general  use  is  seen  from 

Elt75°' 


TWo  SECTION  TURNOVER^ 
DoofO-lN-EACH-iAY 


gttO*' 


FIG.  31. — SHIP  BOOM  AND  CARGO  MAST  SYSTEM.     (Courtesy  Department  of 
Wharves,  Docks  and  Ferries,  Philadelphia.} 

the  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  31).  The  pier-shed  columns 
are  extended  to  the  height  of  75  or  80  feet  above  mean  low  water. 
These  vertical  beams  are  secured  by  horizontal  beams  with  cross 
bracing.  There  is  also  a  footwalk  along  the  entire  structure.  From 
this  footwalk  it  is  possible  to  secure  the  stirrup  in  the  horizontal 
beams  to  which  the  blocks  are  attached;  the  whip  is  attached  to  the 

°C.  W.  Staniford,   "New  Cargo  Masts  Developed  for  New  York  City 
Piers."    Engineering  News  Record,  Vol.  LXXVIII  (1917),  453,  454. 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    I.  METHODS  OF  TRANSFER      119 

block  through  which  the  burton 
rope  passes.  The  horizontal  beam 
is  provided  with  holes  at  about  2  to 
3  feet  centers.  It  is  only  necessary 
to  pass  a  single  bolt  through  one 
of  these  holes  and  secure  it  with  a 
nut  on  the  end.  A  "close-up"  of 
two  burton  blocks  at  the  cargo 
masts  at  one  of  the  Chelsea  piers 
at  New  York  will  illustrate  this 
simple  process  (see  Fig.  32). 

In  the  description  of  operation  that  follows  it  will  be  understood 
that  unless  otherwise  stated  the  cargo-mast  burton-and-fall  system 
will  be  taken  for  granted. 


FlG.      32 — BLOCKS     AND     SHACKLES 

ATTACHED    TO     CARGO     MAST 

EQUIPMENT,    CHELSEA 

PIERS,    N     Y. 


CHAPTER  VII 
CARGO  TRANSFER:  II.    CARGO  WINCHES  AND  SIGNALING1 

The  various  types  of  deck  and  dock  winches  for  various  kinds  of 
work  should  receive  careful  consideration  and  their  operation  and  the 
principles  involved  in  their  care  should  be  thoroughly  understood. 
It  is  believed  that,  with  the  work  to  be  done  by  the  various  types  of 
transfer  equipment  clearly  in  mind,  a  better  appreciation  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  winch  may  be  gained  in  preparation  for  a  more  care- 
ful study  of  the  detailed  operations  of  cargo  transfer. 

STANDARD  PRACTICE 

Standard  specifications  for  cargo-handling  deck  winches  usually 
provide  for  a  set  of  four  winches  for  each  mast,  or  two  for  each  hatch. 
When  there  is  no  mast  stepped  between  the  hatches,  but  the  two 
hatches  are  practically  continuous,  the  two  pairs  of  winches  are 
placed  at  opposite  ends  of  the  hatches. 

Rigging. — The  rigging  in  standard  practice  (Figs.  33  and  34) 
fixes  one  boom  over  the  hatch,  and  the  other  over  the  side  of  the 
vessel,  both  whips  being  permanently  attached  to  a  single  hook,  form- 
ing what  is  called  the  yard-and-stay  or  the  burton  method,  described 
in  detail  in  the  preceding  chapter.  The  winches  are  installed  in  such 
a  manner  that  one  winch  runner  or  operator  standing  between  them 
can  see  down  into  the  hatch  and  operate  a  winch  with  each  hand. 
Although  entirely  dependent  upon  the  signalman  (see  below)  for  the 
position  of  the  hook  overside,  or  outboard,  he  is  in  full  control  of 
the  operations  of  the  draft  into  and  out  of  the  hold. 

These  winches  are  very  easy  to  operate,  since  each  is  controlled  by 
a  single  lever  operating  the  reverse  valve,  with  the  rope  leading  off 
the  top  of  the  drum.  This  one  lever  is  moved  up  or  down  according 
as  the  draft  is  to  be  lifted  or  lowered,  that  is,  the  control  lever  is 
moved  in  the  direction  that  the  draft  is  to  travel.  Moreover,  the 

*By  R.  S.  MacElwee. 

120 


FIG.  33. — THE  WHIP.  This  leads  off  the  top  of  the  drum,  through  a  block 
fastened  to  the  deck,  and  thence  through  the  block  at  the  peak  of  the  boom — 
light  duty  rig.  (Courtesy  Lidgerwood,} 


FIG.  34. — BLOCKS  AT  THE  PEAK  OF  A  BOOM.  Upper  one  for  lowering  and 
raising  the  boom;  lower  one  (hanging)  through  which  the  whips  travel. 
This  boom  is  stored  and  not  in  action — heavy  duty  rig.  (Courtesy  Lidger- 


121 


122  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

speed  of  the  winch  is  determined  by  the  amount  the  lever  is  moved. 
For  these  reasons  one  inexperienced  man  can  quickly  learn  to  operate 
simultaneously  the  two  winches  at  a  hatch. 

The  efficiency  of  a  dock  winch  is  determined  not  so  much  by  its 
speed  as  by  its  dependability.  The  dependability  in  turn  is  de- 
termined largely  by  the  stanchness  of  its  construction  to  resist  the 
"working"  of  a  vessel  tossed  about  at  sea  and  by  its  simplicity  in  the 
care  and  operation  truit  must  be  left  largely  to  longshoremen. 

Control. — Modern  steam  winches  have  throttle  control.  As 
winches  are  operated  by  longshoremen  in  every  port  and  not  by  a 
member  of  the  ship's  crew,  the  simplicity  and  reliability  of  the 
winch  are  of  the  first  importance.  A  demonstration  for  the  type  of 
winch  control  that  should  be  general  is  indicated  by  the  following 
test  at  a  factory.  A  day  laborer  handling  a  wheelbarrow  who  had 
never  operated  any  kind  of  machine  was  chosen  for  this  test  and  was 
asked  to  hoist  and  lower  a  5OO-pound  load.  He  was  instructed  as 
follows  :  Lift  the  lever  to  hoist  the  load  ;  lower  the  lever  to  lower  the 
load ;  put  the  lever  in  its  first  position,  or  simple  position,  with  foot 
on  the  brake  to  rest  or  to  hold  the  load.  After  several  attempts  this 
laborer  lifted  the  draft  25  or  30  feet  safely,  rested  it  at  will,  and 
lowered  it  to  the  ground  without  a  jolt. 

Capacity. — There  has  been  a  consistent  increase  in  the  capacity 
and  lifting  power  of  ship's  deck  winches  for  handling  cargo.  Modern 
ships  are  equipped  with  steam  or  electric  winches  having  heavy  gears, 
and  with  booms,  cables,  blocks,  falls,  etc.,  of  large  capacity.  The 
rigs  are  now  capable  of  lifting  loads  of  as  much  as  5  tons ;  by  combin- 
ing two  lifts,  even  heavier  drafts  may  be  handled.  As  drafts  usually 
run  from  l,OOO  to  1,500  pounds,  their  greater  capacity  is  for  reserve 
power  and  for  emergency  use.  By  not  overworking  or  overloading 
winches  their  life  is  prolonged  as  with  any  other  machine. 


KINDS  OF  WINCHES 

Right-hand  and  Left-hand  Winches. — The  accompanying 
view,  Figure  35,  looking  vertically  upon  the  deck  from  the  mast 
will  aid  in  understanding  the  general  nature  of  the  rig  and  layout  of 
the  winches.  A  case  of  merchandise  with  the  full  weight  on  the  fall 
boom  is  in  the  hatch.  A  line  is  seen  to  the  right  hanging  slack ;  this 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    II.  CARGO  WINCHES         123 

is  the  burton  whip.    The  burton  boom,  or  the  outboard  boom,  extends 
to  the  right  beyond  the  picture. 

The  winches  are  operated  by  steam  and  the  steam  pipes  coming 
from  the  boiler  room  extend  across  the  deck  in  the  open  air  to  the 
winches.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  installation  of  steam-pipe 


FlG.   35. — MASTHEAD   VIEW   OF  RIGHT   AND    LEFT    HAND  WINCHES,    WINCH    RUNNER, 

BOOM,  DRAFT  AND  HATCH  OPENING.     (Courtesy  Lidgeriuood.} 
connections  to  deck  winches,  as  the  working  of  the  ship  will  loosen 
the  pipe  and  cause  loss  of  steam  and  inefficiency.    Unfortunately  this 
is  a  condition  that  is  rather  frequent. 

Hughes  classifies  winches  as  spur-geared,  friction-geared,  and 
electric  winches.2 

Two  steam  winches  are  shown  in  the  illustration,  a  left-hand 
winch  and  a  right-hand  winch,  with  the  operator  in  the  middle,  his 
right  and  left  hands  controlling,  respectively,  the  right-hand  and  left- 

2Chas.  H.  Hftghes,  Handbook  of  Ship  Calculations,  Construction,  and 
Operation.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1916,  626-628. 


124  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

hand  winches.  The  winches,  if  reversed  in  their  position,  would  still 
be  right-hand  and  left-hand.  But  in  that  case  it  would  take  two 
men  to  run  them.  The  winches  are  constructed  in  this  particular 
fashion  in  order  to  enable  one  man  to  run  one  with  his  right  hand 
and  one  with  his  left  hand  and  to  bring  the  two  machines  closer  to- 
gether to  economize  space  and  to  give  facility  for  one-man  opera- 
tion. Stevedores  sometimes  call  them  the  far-side  winch  and  the  near- 
side winch,  determined  by  the  position  of  the  winch  in  relation  to 
the  draft. 

There  are  several  features  besides  control  that  make  the  winches 
of  left-hand  and  right-hand  pattern.  The  drum  ends  are  en  the 
opposite  side  of  the  winch  from  the  lever  handle,  the  rope  or  cable 
winds  from  the  end  of  the  drum  away  from  the  operator,  that  is,  in 
all  hoisting  machinery,  as  a  rule,  the  cables  wind  away  from  the 
gears.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  gears  are  on  the  right-hand  side 
in  the  right-hand  winch,  and  on  the  left-hand  side  in  the  left-hand 
winch.  This  is  to  afford  more  direct  application  of  power  to  the 
drum  end.  The  brake  is  on  the  left  end  of  the  drum  on  the 
right-hand  winch,  and  the  opposite  on  the  left-hand  winch.  Of 
course,  the  brake  must  be  on  the  same  side  as  the  throttle.  The 
intake  steam  pipe  and  the  exhaust  steam  pipe  are  also  reversed  in 
the  two  winches. 

The  Winch  Drum. — The  winch  drum  should  not  be  less  than 
16  inches  in  diameter,  otherwise  the  bending  strains  will  be  very 
destructive  to  the  rope.  The  ideal  winch  should  have  a  range  in 
speed  from  50  to  450  feet  per  minute  and  a  range  in  load  from  100 
to  10,OOO  pounds.  The  capacity  of  the  drum  should  be  not  less  than 
5©O  feet  of  three-quarter  inch  rope. 

The  Drum  End. — The  drum  end  should  also  be  of  ample  diame- 
ter. Stevedores  hoist  cargo  with  manila  rope  looped  around  the 
drum  end.  This  is  rapid  and  flexible,  but  expensive,  as  there  is  con- 
siderable slip  and  friction  on  the  drum  which  wears  or  burns  manila 
rope  very  rapidly.  One  seldoms  sees  a  ship  in  New  York  ready  to 
discharge  its  cargo  without  finding  most  of  the  rope  brand  new. 
The  short  ends  of  old  rope  are  cut  into  convenient  lengths  for  rig- 
ging, for  making  slings,  and  for  other  such  purposes. 

Special  Types  of  Winches. — In  general,  many  of  the  smaller 
types  of  vessels  are  designed  to  carry  special  cargo;  consequently  a 
one-design  winch  does  not  work  efficiently  in  all  cases ;  even  on  the 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    II.  CARGO  WINCHES         125 

larger  ships  it  is  better  to  have  more  than  one  design  of  winch.  In 
loading  hay,  for  instance,  a  friction  winch  will  work  faster  than  a 
steam  spur-geared  or  electric  winch,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  for 
loading  barrels,  safes,  and  other  heavy  drafts  a  spur  gear  is  prac- 
tically a  guaranty  that  the  draft  will  not  go  through  the  bottom 
of  the  ship. 

There  is  not  always  a  separate  winch  for  each  fall.  Most  vessels 
have  two  winches  and  many  have  more  at  each  hatch.  There  are 
three  types  of  winches,  according  to  Barnes.3  The  first  type  has 
only  a  central  drum;  another  has  only  an  end  drum,  and  the  third 
has  a  central  as  well  as  end  drums.  The  third  type  is  most  com- 
mon. The  burton  is  wound  around  and  attached  to  the  central  drum, 
the  up-and-down  falls  are  wound  on  the  drum  ends  but  are  not 
attached.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  drum-end  man  to  cause  a  shortening 
or  a  lengthening  of  the  fall  as  necessary.  By  using  the  three  drums, 
one  winch  can  handle  three  whips. 

The  selection  of  the  different  designs  of  winches  to  meet  dif- 
ferent uses  may  be  illustrated  by  an  example.  A  buyer  came  to  a 
certain  winch  salesman  and  made  known  to  him  that  he  wanted  a 
winch.  The  salesman  described  in  great  detail  the  merits  of  the 
spur-geared  steam-controlled  winch,  that  is,  the  winch  that  started, 
raised,  lowered,  and  came  to  rest  from  the  control  of  the  steam 
throttle  working  through  gears.  But  the  buyer  said :  "Yes,  that  is 
all  very  well,  but  I  need  a  single-friction  winch,  a  winch  driven  by 
steam  but  with  the  transmission  controlled  by  a  friction  clutch  instead 
of  by  the  regulation  of  the  flow  of  steam  to  the  cylinders,  that  is, 
by  a  throttle."  The  salesman,  still  thinking  of  steam,  again  extolled 
the  merits  of  his  steam  winches.  Finally  the  buyer  said:  "I  do  not 
believe  you  understand  what  I  want  to  use  this  winch  for.  I  am  a 
fish  dealer  and  I  load  large  drafts  of  fish  into  my  boat.  The  steam 
winch  is  too  slow  because  it  will  not  drop  my  load  quickly  enough. 
With  the  single  friction  winch,  as  soon  as  the  draft  is  over  the  hatch 
the  friction  can  be  released  and  the  load  dropped  into  the  hold.  The 
fish  will  not  go  through  the  bottom  of  the  boat,  no  damage  is  done 
to  the  boat,  and  much  time  is  saved."  Such  a  winch  for  loading 
general  merchandise,  particularly  bars  of  iron  and  other  heavy 
articles  will  be  dangerous  because  the  load,  if  inadvertently  released, 
would  go  through  the  bottom  of  the  boat. 

3  Barnes,  The  Longshoremen,  36,  37. 


126  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

For  heavy  duty  a  two-speed  ship  winch  is  desirable.  It  is  designed 
for  use  where  heavy  loads  are  to  be  handled  on  a  derrick  boom  in 
addition  to  lighter  loads  on  a  general  cargo  boom,  that  is,  it  is  con- 
structed to  lift  twice  the  weight  at  half  the  speed.  The  slow  speed, 
high  duty,  compound  gearing,  is  used  for  the  heavy  load,  obviating 
the  necessity  for  parts  of  tackle  otherwise  required.  A  single  gearing 
handles  the  light  load  at  twice  the  speed.  The  throttle  valve  and 
reverse  may  be  interconnected  and  controlled  by  a  single  lever  if 
desired,  but  ordinarily  separate  levers  for  throttle  and  reverse  are 
furnished.  When  it  is  desired  to  work  with  the  single  gear  the 
clutch  on  the  crank  shaft  is  thrown  into  gear,  and  the  crank-shaft 
pinion  will  directly  drive  the  drum  gear,  and  the  load  may  be  hoisted 
and  lowered  by  steam;  or  the  clutch  can  be  thrown  out  of  gear  and 
the  load  held  or  lowered  by  the  foot-operated  brake  which  is  fitted  to 
the  drum  flange.  To  handle  heavy  weights  at  slower  speed  the  clutch 
is  thrown  into  gear  with  the  pinion  operating  the  compound  gearing 
and  the  load  hoisted,  held,  and  lowered  by  steam.  When  working 
with  single  gear  the  clutch  on  the  intermediate  shaft  may  be  moved 
out  of  connection  and  this  shaft  left  at  rest. 

Electric  Ship's  Winches. — One  manufacturer 4  presents  the 
case  of  electric  winches  as  follows : 

On  a  number  of  ships  it  is  desirable  to  use  electric  winches  for 
cargo  handling.  This  is  particularly  the  case  on  motor  ships  and 
on  other  vessels  where  dynamos  of  large  capacity  are  installed. 
Electric  winches  present  new  problems  not  encountered  in  steam- 
winch  practice.  The  motors,  controllers,  and  resistances  must  be 
made  absolutely  water-tight  to  insure  proper  working.  Should  water 
enter  the  casings  of  these  parts  the  damage  would  be  considerable, 
and  would  probably  necessitate  shop  repairs.  In  some  cases  only  the 
motor  is  mounted  on  the  bedplate  of  the  winch,  the  controller  and 
resistances  being  placed  under  the  deck  in  a  dust-proof  casing. 

Fuse  or  circuit  breakers  are  not  furnished  with  the  hoists,  but  are 
a  part  of  the  wiring  circuit.  One  or  the  other  is  absolutely  essential. 
They  should  be  adjusted  for  not  more  than  50  per  cent  overload. 

Either  direct  or  alternating  current  can  be  used.  Winches  can 
be  equipped  with  either  type  of  motor. 

It  is  found  desirable  in  certain  cases  to  use  a  continuous  run- 
ning motor,  and  to  use  the  friction  drum  entirely  for  controlling  the 
load.  This  requires  a  special  type  of  friction  drum.  The  continu- 

4  Lidgerwood  Manufacturing  Company. 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    II.  CARGO  WINCHES         127 

ous  running  motor  has  been  found  particularly  desirable  where 
winch  heads  only  are  employed.  Stevedores  handle  cargo  by  run- 
ning the  winch  heads  continuously  and  by  tightening  or  slackening 
the  rope  on  the  winch  head  as  required  to  hoist  or  lower  the  load. 
With  direct-current  motors  this  requires  that  the  motor  have  the 
proper  winding  to  prevent  its  overspeeding  when  running  without 
load. 

Solenoid  brakes  are  furnished  when  ordered.  They  are  generally 
desirable  on  electric  hoists,  as  they  provide  an  automatic  safety  device 
for  holding  the  load  when  the  current  is  shut  off  by  the  operator  or 
by  accident. 

Dock  Winches. — Proper  handling  equipment  on  the  piers  and 
wharves  is  as  important  as  on  the  vessels.  Wharf  equipment  is  used 
not  only  to  assist  in  loading  and  unloading  cargo  from  vessels,  but 
also  to  handle  cargo  on  the  wharves,  where  it  is  frequently  piled  for 


FIG.  36. — ELECTRIC  DOCK  WINCH — STATIONARY.     (Courtesy  Lidgerwood.) 

storage  or  has  to  be  loaded  and  unloaded  from  cars,  trucks,  lighters, 
etc.  Electric  winches  (as  shown  in  Fig.  36)  are  preferable  to 
steam  winches  for  wharf  use.  The  mobility  of  the  winch  is  one  of 
its  most  important  features,  and  electric  winches  may  be  moved 
from  point  to  point,  modern  piers  being  constructed  with  electric 
wiring  and  plugs  at  frequent  intervals.  Connections  at  these  plugs 
with  flexible  cables  make  it  possible  to  move  the  winch  to  any  point 
on  the  wharf. 

Winches  on  the  pier  would  seem  at  first  thought  to  be  an  unneo- 


128  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

essary  expense,  since  in  most  cases  they  simply  replace  a  ship  winch, 
but  they  have  proved  advantageous  for  the  following  reasons  : 

1.  They  can  be  used   for  handling  lighter  cargoes  or  in 
moving  freight  on  the  pier.     Therefore  they  accelerate 
the  loading  or  discharge  of  a  vessel. 

2.  Since  they   are  in   almost  constant  use   they   are   more 
liable  to  be  kept  in  efficient  working  condition  than  the 
ship's  winches. 

3.  If  run  by  electric  power,  as  many  are,  they  have  several 
advantages    over    steam    winches — they    have    greater 
speed ;  their  average  operating  cost  is  lower ;  they  are 
safer,  because  of  the  greater  power  and  uniformity  of 
speed ;  they  operate  at  short  notice  and  eliminate  stand- 
by charges  when  delays  occur;  they  are  not  subject  to 
frozen  pipes   or  cylinders ;   and  by   use   of   the   double 
portable   master-controller   they   can   be   operated   from 
any  convenient  point  on  the  pier  or  vessel. 

4.  Frequently   the   ship  cannot  handle   the   cargo   rapidly 
either  because  of  lack  of  workable  winches  or  a  poor 
feed  of  steam.     In  such  cases  the  pier  winches  prove  of 
great  value.5 

Another  electric  dock  winch  is  shown  in  Figure  36a  mounted  on 
wheels  with  wheel  chocks.  This  apparatus  has  several  distinctive 
features.  It  is  a  combination  of  two  complete  single-drum  winches 
mounted  on  the  same  bedplate,  with  the  drum  and  motor  shafts  in 
alignment.  The  motor  shafts  are  arranged  for  interconnection  so 
that  the  combined  power  of  the  two  motors  may  be  applied  to  either 
of  the  drums,  the  other  drum  being  idle.  With  the  motor  shafts  dis- 
connected, each  motor  with  the  corresponding  drum  and  winch  head 
operates  independently.  This  arrangement  gives  an  opportunity  to 
double  the  lifting  power  of  any  single  drum  and  drum  end.  The 
operation  of  the  whip  is  the  same  for  any  drum  and  drum-end  winch. 
The  solenoid  brake,  which  is  lifted  by  magnetism  when  the  current 
is  turned  on  and  set  with  a  powerful  spring  when  there  is  no  current, 
is  plainly  visible  in  the  illustration.  The  solenoid  brake  is  a  char- 
acteristic safety  feature  of  all  electrical  hoisting  machinery  and 
elevators. 

5J.  A.  Jackson  and  R.  H.  Rogers,  "The  Status  of  Cargo  Handling  in 
American  Marine  Terminals."  International  Marine  Engineering,  Vol. 
XXI  (1916),  356,  357.  Also  International  Marine  Engineering,  Vol.  XXIII 
(1918),  343,  344. 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    II.  CARGO  WINCHES         129 

The  control  of  this  winch  is  a  particular  feature.  The  large  box 
to  the  left  of  the  machine  is  an  automatic  controller.  The  operator 
carries  a  rheostat  suspended  from  his  neck,  similar  to  the  car-switch 
control  in  an  electric  elevator,  and  this  switch  is  connected  with  the 
controller  on  the  winch  by  a  live  cable.  This  arrangement  makes  it 
possible  for  the  winch  runner  or  operator  to  move  about  and  to 
observe  the  position  of  the  draft.  He  is  enabled  thereby  to  overlook 


m 


FlG.    363. — ELECTRIC   DOCK   WINCH   WITH    PORTABLE    CONTROL    SWITCH. 

(Courtesy  Lidgerwood.} 

the  operation  throughout,  dispensing  with  a  signal  man  in  most  cases. 

Many  modern  ships  are  abandoning  the  steam  winch  for  the 
electric  winch.  This  is  particularly  true  in  motor  ships  where  no 
steam  is  maintained  in  boilers,  except  for  heating  purposes.  The 
introduction  of  electric  winches  with  a  portable  controller  will  do 
away  with  the  hand  signal  man  and  in  many  cases  with  one  winch 
runner.  With  a  right-hand  and  left-hand  control  of  two  distinct 
drums,  one  operator  can  walk  from  the  side  of  the  ship  to  the  hatch- 
way, control  both  the  burton  and  the  fall  at  will,  and  perform  the 
entire  operation  of  unloading.  This  would  reduce  the  winch  person- 
nel to  the  same  as  that  of  a  crane  operator  and  in  addition  would 
eliminate  the  signal  man.  With  the  development  of  motor  ships 
this  type  of  electric  winch  on  deck,  as  well  as  on  the  piers,  is  bound 
to  come  into  universal  practice. 

A  single-drum  electric  winch  mounted  on  wheels  is  shown  in 
Figure  37.  The  truck  is  furnished  with  holding  dogs  that  are 
driven  into  the  wooden  deck  of  the  pier.  This  type  of  winch  is 
particularly  adapted  for  handling  freight  on  the  pier  in  small  drafts 
because  of  its  mobility. 


130  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Where  electricity  is  not  available,  or  where  it  is  not  practicable 
to  keep  up  steam,  as  on  a  motor  ship,  or  where  it  would  not  pay  to 
keep  up  steam  for  any  length  of  time,  there  has  been  devised  a  gas- 
engine  winch.  This  type  is  adaptable  to  sailing  vessels  with  auxil- 
iary power  and  is  also  a  valuable  machine  for  lighters.  The  winch  is 
quite  similar  in  its  operation  and  function  to  the  contractor's  gasoline 
winch  that  is  used  in  building  construction. 


FlG.  37. — PORTABLE  ELECTRIC  DOCK  WINCH — LIGHT  DUTY. 

(Courtesy  Lidgerwood.} 

Care  of  Electric  Winches. — The  care  of  electric  winches  is  similar 
to  the  care  of  any  other  electrical  hoisting  apparatus.  This  will  be 
described  under  Warehousing  in  the  section  devoted  to  elevators 
and  lifts.  The  care  required  is  the  same  as  that  for  any  other  winch, 
steam  or  electric,  the  principle  being  that  all  running  parts  must  be 
kept  carefully  oiled,  free  from  grit  and  dirt,  must  be  kept  in  align- 
ment and  protected  from  exposure.  It  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

1.  All  running  parts  must  be  carefully  greased  and  oiled. 

2.  After  loading  dusty  or  gritty  cargo  the  spur  gears  should 
be  scraped. 

3.  When  not  in  operation  the  winches  should  be  kept  covered 
with  a  tarpaulin  or  other  waterproof  cover. 

4.  The  steam  pipe  should  be  carefully  watched  and  the  joints 
frequently  repacked  to  prevent  loss  of  steam  and  ineffi- 
ciency. 

In  general,  no  machine  should  be  called  upon  to  perform  its 
maximum  capacity  through  long  periods  of  time.  A  machine  will 
break  down  through  overwork  as  will  the  human  body. 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    II.  CARGO  WINCHES         131 

The  lack  of  adequate  transfer  equipment  is  in  many  cases  the 
reason  that  there  is  not  simultaneous  loading  of  all  hatches.  D.  J. 
Murphy,  Jr.,  a  stevedore  in  Philadelphia,  has  said  that  of  all  the 
ships  operating  under  the  American  flag  to-day,  so  far  as  he  knows 
them,  there  is  only  one  (the  Felix  Taussig)  whose  winch  system  is 
sufficiently  well  planned  and  built  to  permit  all  hatches  to  be  worked 
efficiently  at  one  time.  As  an  example  of  the  poorly  constructed 
vessel  he  quotes  the  case  of  the  Keketticut,  which  arrived  in  Philadel- 
phia from  San  Francisco  with  9,000  tons  of  flour.  Although  there 
were  170  pounds  of  steam  in  the  boiler,  many  of  the  winches  could 
not  be  worked,  and,  as  a  result,  only  two  gangs  could  be  used  on  the 
five  hatches.  He  estimates  the  time  lost  in  discharge  as  at  least 
three  days.  He  further  states  that  the  Edgemont,  the  Edgemore, 
and  the  Edgewood,  all  new  vessels  belonging  to  the  United  States 
Shipping  Board,  have  such  a  faulty  steam-feed  system  that  No.  1 
hatch  cannot  be  worked  at  the  same  time  as  No.  3.  He  lays  the 
blame  largely  on  the  ship  architect  6  for  installing  boilers  or  feed 
pipes  that  are  too  small  to  give  the  winches  the  proper  amount  of 
steam.  Others  7  lay  the  blame,  not  on  the  equipment  itself,  but  on 
the  handling  of  that  equipment,  pointing  out  that  the  donkey  engines 
are  not  kept  in  proper  running  order  and  that  steam  is  wasted  by  the 
winchmen.  Undoubtedly  there  is  truth  in  both  views ;  the  laborers 
are  careless  and  the  architect  has  not  taken  this  carelessness  into 
consideration  when  designing  the  vessel.  But  after  the  vessel  has 
been  put  in  service,  the  best  remedy  is  to  keep  the  equipment  at 
maximum  efficiency,  and  the  American  masters  are  particularly  lax  in 
this  regard.  A  comparison  is  often  drawn  between  the  efficiency  of 

8  That  the  fault  may  be  with  the  owner  rather  than  with  the  architect 
is  indicated  by  the  following  quotation  from  the  Pacific  Marine  Review, 
Vol.  XVI  (1916),  127: 

X"A  feeling  has  prevailed  among  shipowners  in  the  past  that  a  winch 
being  placed  on  deck,  exposed  to  the  weather,  need  not  have  the  same  re- 
finement in  design  and  construction  that  would  be  required  of  an  engine-room 
equipment.  This  is  true  so  far  as  the  exterior  finish  of  the  winch  is  con- 
cerned, but  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  a  winch  on  deck  is  just  as  important 
as  that  of  a  ship's  engines.  This  fact  has  been  lost  sight  of  by  many  owners 
and  officers.  They  have  called  for  rugged,  rough  winches  to  stand  exposure, 
forgetting  that  these  qualities  can  be  combined  with  mechanical  excellence. 
The  result  has  been  carelessly  designed  steam  passages,  resulting  in  back 
pressure;  bearings  that  are  seldom  in  proper  alignment,  carelessly  con- 
structed and  filled  with  cheapest  bearing  metal,  gears  that  do  not  mesh 
properly,  and  cylinders  bored  out  rough.  One  need  only  listen  to  the  racket 
made  by  an  ordinary  ship's  winch  to  appreciate  the  loss  of  power.  This  is 
accepted  by  many  ship's  officers  as  being  natural  and  proper  in  a  winch — 
it  is  their  accepted  standard  of  a  winch.  However,  these  conditions  have 
changed." 

'Notably  Mr.  Loveland,  another  Philadelphia  stevedore,  who  disagrees 
altogether  with  Mr.  Murphy. 


132  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

the  equipment  on  Scandinavian  and  American  vessels,  much  to  the 
disadvantage  of  the  American.  It  is  easy  to  allow  equipment  not 
used  on  the  voyage  to  fall  into  disrepair,  and  it  is  difficult  for  the 
new  master,  especially,  to  realize  the  excessive  cost  of  such  neglect. 
Tt  not  only  prevents  the  working  of  all  hatches,  but  it  delays  transfer 
at  each  hatch.  He  must  continually  remember  that  time  lost  in  port 
is  a  large  item  in  operating  expense,  even  though  it  does  not  appear 
on  the  cost  sheet.8 

Starting  the  Draft. — A  heavy  load  must  be  started  gradually. 
Care  must  be  exercised  to  prevent  it  from  colliding  with  the  hatch 
coamings  and  other  objects  in  the  hold  or  on  the  pier.  Also,  great 
care  and  judgment  must  be  shown  in  hooking  on  a  heavy  draft; 
much  more  than  in  the  handling  of  light  drafts.  There  is  a  great 
rope  stress  developed  in  starting  drafts  quickly.  A  five-ton  draft 
started  too  quickly  may  produce  a  rope  stress  of  seven  or  eight  tons. 
Repeated  too  often,  the  rope  may  break  when  the  load  is  in  the  air. 
The  winch  runner  must  be  carefully  instructed  as  to  starting  and 
stopping  in  order  not  to  cause  undue  strain  upon  cables,  blocks, 
machinery,  and  other  rigging.  Also,  if  the  draft  catches  under  a 
corner  of  the  hatch  or  the  pier  shed,  or  in  any  other  way  becomes 
fouled,  quick  action  must  be  taken  to  stop  the  winches. 

SIGNALING 

Signaling  in  loading  or  unloading  is  very  important.  Signaling 
is  the  same  whether  the  transfer  is  being  done  with  ship's  tackle  or 
with  shore  cranes.  Each  time  a  draft  is  transferred  or  a  hook  is 
returned  to  its  original  position  to  receive  another  draft,  a  series  of 
movements  is  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  winch  runner  or  the  crane 
operator.  It  is  impossible  for  a  winch  runner  to  be  in  a  position  to 
see  both  ends  of  the  movement.  The  same  applies  to  a  crane 
operator.  The  man  running  the  winch  can  see  into  the  hatchway 
and  can  control  the  movement  of  the  hook  so  long  as  it  is  in  the 
hatch  square.  He  is  not  in  a  position  to  watch  the  movement  of  the 
hook  and  the  draft  overside  on  the  lighter  or  the  wharf  deck  or  back 
in  the  hold.  It  is  important  when  loading  a  vessel  to  stop  the  draft 
before  it  goes  to  the  floor  or  "ceiling"  of  the  ship,  and  then  lower  it 
gently  to  the  point  of  deposit ;  and  when  dragging  a  draft  out  from 

8  Thomas  R.  Taylor,  Storage  of  Ship  Cargoes. 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    II.  CARGO  WINCHES         133 

behind  the  hatch  opening  in  the  hold  additional  provision  must  be 
made  for  relaying  signals.  It  is  essential  that  the  winch  runner  be 
stopped  on  an  instant's  notice  if  the  draft  catches  or  fouls  anywhere, 
otherwise  the  gears,  rigging,  draft,  or  the  ship  itself  may  be  in- 
jured. Also,  for  the  safety  of  the  entire  stevedore  gang,  a  uniform 
and  well-understood  system  of  signals  is  absolutely  essential. 

The  signal  man  is  usually  the  captain  of  the  stevedore  gang.  He 
is  the  boss  stevedore  for  some  twenty  or  more  men  working  in  a  gang. 
Usually  one  gang  works  with  each  fall  or  hook,  therefore  for  every 
hook  in  operation  in  the  hatch  in  transfer  movement  there  must  be 
a  signal  man,  as  one  man  can  watch  only  one  hook  throughout 
its  cycle.  He  paces  back  and  forth  with  each  draft  from  the  ship's 
rail  to  the  hatch  coaming,  or  from  the  hatch  coaming  to  the  ship's 
rail. 

Uniform  signals  do  not  exist.  Each  signal  man  seems  to  have 
his  own  signals  with  which  his  particular  winch  runner  is  familiar. 
In  spite  of  the  diversified  methods  in  signaling  the  differences  from 
one  hatch  captain  to  another  are  rather  in  the  nature  of  mannerisms 
than  in  a  fundamental  difference  in  the  signal.  As  in  all  such  trades 
or  vocations,  the  signals  develop  naturally  just  as  many  words  in 
our  language  have  been  developed  by  imitation  of  sound  or  motion. 

In  order  to  develop  uniformity  and  to  show  the  fundamental 
principles  in  practice  in  signaling,  a  description  of  the  various 
movements,  with  photographs,9  of  a  gang  captain  of  particular 
efficiency  and  intelligence  are  shown  herewith.  This  particular  gang 
captain  was  a  captain  in  the  United  States  Army  in  charge  of  a 
stevedore  company  in  France.  He  stated  that  he  earns  more  as  a 
longshoreman  gang  captain  than  he  did  as  an  army  captain.  His 
hourly  rate  is  5  cents  higher  than 
that  of  the  deck  men,  that  is,  at  the 
last  rating  he  would  be  receiving 
85  cents  an  hour  for  an  8-hour 
day,  and  $1.27^2  for  over- 
time. 

Stop. — The  signal  to  stop  is  al- 
ways the  arm  centered  with  the 
palm  down.  See  Figure  38.  Fia  38-_STOP> 


9  The  photographs  taken  by  the  author    of    actual    operations    are    re- 
printed here  only  as  sketches. 


134 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


FlG.     39. — CONTINUE     LOWERING. 


Lower  Slowly. — The  draft  is  being  lowered  on  to  a  lighter.  The 
signal  "stop"  has  held  the  draft  a  few  feet  above  the  deck  of  the 
lighter;  from  this  position  it  is  lowered  slowly  to  the  deck  by  the 

signal  man  moving  his  hand  or  the 
fingers  of  his  hand  downward  in  a 
short,  quick  motion,  until  the  draft 
has  reached  the  deck.  See  Figure 

39- 

Continue  Lowering. — Continue 

lowering  is  indicated  by  holding 
the  position  of  Figure  39. 

Lower  Away. — To  lower  away 
continuously     until     halted,     the 

forearm  or  the  entire  arm  is  pulled  downward  until  it  hangs  by  the 

side.     This  motion  is  made  decisive.     It  is  intended  that  the  draft 

should  be  lowered  considerably  and  at  a  rapid  speed. 

Up  Slowly. — The  hand  is  ex- 
tended with  the  palm  up  and  the 

fingers  closed  or  the  hands  raised 

repeatedly  from  the  wrist  with  a 

sharp  movement.     See  Figure  40. 

In  pulling  up  on  the  hook  until 

it  engages  the  rope,  and  until  the 

sling  is  taut  in  order  to  have  the 

bite  driven  down  on  the  rove,  the 

motion  of  hauling  up,  or  holding 

ready  to  lift,  is  indicated  by  the 

palm  extended  in  rest,  or  moving  the  fingers  up.     See  Figure  41. 

The  curve  of  the  wrist  in  Figure  40  shows  the  changed  position  for 

the  short  movement. 

The  signal  man  in  Figure  42 
is  indicating  to  "hoist  slowly"  by 
moving  his  first  two  fingers  and 
thumb,  or  bringing  them  together 
in  a  series  of  pinches.  He  is  look- 
ing into  the  hold  at  this  particular 
point. 

Sometimes  the  signal  men  hold 

a  short  stick  or  a  broken  piece  of  pineboard  that  is  easy  to  see,  and 


FIG.  40. — UP  SLOWLY  (SHORT  MOVE- 
MENTS OF  THE  WRIST). 


FIG.  41.— UP. 


CARGO  TRANSFER:  II.  CARGO  WINCHES 


135 


move  this  stick  in  small  oscillations  in  the  same  manner  as  indicated 
in  the  other  signals. 

It  behooves  every  one  working 
around  a  ship  transferring  cargo 
to  keep  an  eye  on  the  signal  man, 
and  any  person  responsible  at  all 
for  the  loading  and  discharging  of 
the  vessel  should  take  great  care 
that  the  winch  runner  and  the  sig- 
nal man  are  in  complete  accord  as 
to  the  signals.  There  is  consider- 
able danger  connected  with  the 
longshoremen's  trade  in  loading 

and  discharging  ships,  and  attention  to  these  matters  will  save  much 
loss  of  property,  and  more  than  that,  loss  of  life. 


FIG.  42. — UP  SLOWLY.  Signaled 
by  bringing  fingers  and  thumb 
together  in  pinches. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    III.  DRAFTS1 

In  practically  all  cases  of  transfer  of  cargo  between  ship  and 
shore,  except  in  those  few  cases  where  continuous  motion  machinery, 
such  as  belt  conveyors,  banana  unloaders,  etc.,  is  used,  cargo  is 
transferred  by  drafts.  A  "draft"  is  a  sin- 
gle lift  of  merchandise,  often  a  collection 
of  small  packages,  such  as  barrels,  bags, 
crates,  bound  together  in  a  sling  and 
hooked  on  to  the  end  of  the  cable  that  is 
being  operated  by  the  winch  or  crane.  The 
arrangement  of  the  draft  so  as  not  to  break 
the  merchandise  or  cause  other  damage  re- 
quires considerable  attention  to  details. 
Drafts  are  similar  in  composition  regard- 
less of  whether  the  transfer  equipment  be 
cranes  or  ship's  tackle.  Drafts  are  usually 
about  1,000  to  2,000  pounds  in  weight.  It 
SlNGLf.  HoOK\  \  ^as  ^een  f°und  that  faster  work  is  possible 
if  less  is  taken  at  a  time.  The  modern 
cargo  booms  will  lift  5  tons. 

The    hook   requires    no   particular    ex- 

FIG.  43.     \  ^     planation.     It  is  well  curved  so  that  it  is 

not  easy  to  slip  the  sling  out  of  the  hook 
by  accident.  It  is  spliced  securely  to  the  end  of  the  wire  or  manila 
rope  cable  (Fig.  43). 

SLINGS 

The  draft  is  lifted  by  "hooking  on"  to  a  sling  that  may  be  of 
various  types.  The  simple  rope  sling  (Fig.  44)  is  most  generally 
used  for  boxes,  bales,  crates,  bags,  etc.  It  is  a  length  of  hemp  rope 
between  12  and  24  feet  long,  with  the  ends  spliced  together  to  make 
it  endless.  These  slings  are  made  by  the  longshoremen  from  ends 

1  By  R.  S.  MacElwee  and  T.  R.  Taylor.  Some  field  work  and  the  analy- 
sis of  movements  with  tables  and  sketches,  by  L.  H.  H.  Haight  and  M.  M. 
Grass  for  the  United  States  Shipping  Board,  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation. 

136 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    III.  DRAFTS 


137 


of  manila  rope  whips  which  have  become  worn  in  spots  doing  duty 
as  burton  or  fall.  Although  the  rope  when  spliced  is  "endless,"  the 
sling  itself,  when  laid  out  on  the  floor  to  receive  its  load,  has  two 


S/ing* 


FIG.  44. 

ends  and  two  sides.     To  load  the  sling  a  plank  is  laid  on  the  pier 

vdeck  and  the  sides  of  the  sling  are  made  parallel  with  the  plank. 

The  boxes  or  bags  are  piled  on  the  plank  and  the  two  ends  of  the 

sling  brought  together  above  and  around  the  merchandise.     As  soon 

as  a  sling  is  put  around  the  draft 

each  end  is  used  for  a  different 

purpose  and  is  given  a  different 

name.     Care  is  taken  to  have  one 

end    of    the    sling    considerably 

longer  than  the  other.  Before  the 

draft  is   raised  the  long  end  of 

the  sling  is  passed  through  the 

short  end.  The  long  end  is  called 

the  "long  rove,"  or  simply  "the 

rove,"     while     the     short     end 

through  which  the  rove  is  passed 

is   called   the    "bite"    (Fig.   45). 

The  rove  or  long  end  is  put  on 

the   burton   hook   and  when   the 

draft  is  raised  so  that  the  sling  is 

taut  the  longshoreman  drives  the  bite  down  tight  on  the  rove  with 

a  short  length  of  pipe  or  piece  of  wood. 

A  web  sling  is  the  usual  rope 
sling  with  the  central  portion,  per- 
haps one-half  or  two-thirds  of  the 
length,  "webbed"  or  fastened  to- 
gether by  sacking  or  canvas  duck 
webbing  similar  to  a  hammock. 
The  ends  are  left  free  to  act  as 

FlG.   46. — A  WEB  SLING   FOR  SOFT 

BAGS.  bite  and  long  rove.    This  type  of 


FIG.  45. 


138 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


sling  is  used  primarily  in  lifting  bags  of  sugar  and  such  merchandise 
in  bags  that  might  be  cut  open  or  burst  by  the  pressure  of  the  rope 
of  the  sling  alone  (Fig.  46). 

Cant  hooks  are  used  to  transfer  barrels   (Fig.  47).     For  han- 
dling barrels,  unless  the  same  are  handled  by  the  ordinary  rope  sling, 

very  often  the  single  large  hook 
at  the  end  of  the  burton  fall  is 
replaced  by  four  hooks  in  pairs  ; 
each  pair  to  lift  the  end  of  two 
barrels,  that  is,  one  hook  at  each 
end  of  each  barrel.  This  form 
of  hitch  for  the  draft  is  some- 
times used  on  cases,  or  boxes, 
but  is  a  dangerous  method  of 
transfer  (Fig.  48). 

The  net  sling  is  used  in 
transferring  small  packages  of 
miscellaneous  size  and  shapes 
that  are  of  sufficient  strength  in  packing  to  resist  the  pressure  of  their 
neighbors  in  the  net  when  the  four  corners  are  drawn  together.  Pas- 
sengers' trunks  are  usually  transferred  in  slings.  The  net  sling  is 
usually  constructed  during  slack 
hours  by  longshoremen  familiar  and 
skillful  in  splicing.  When  the  cor- 
ners are  brought  together  the  long 
loop  (rove)  is  passed  through  the 
short  loops  and  a  hook  passed 
through  the  rove.  Slings  are  also 
used  between  the  ship  and  the 
shore  under  a  draft  to  catch  any 


FIG.   47. 


FIG.  48. 


packages  in  case  a  draft  should  slip  and   drop   some  of  its   load. 
The  platform  sling  or  airplane  is  a  heavy  timber  skid  with  ropes 
spliced  to  the  four  corners  and  ending  in 
an  iron  ring  or  rope  loop  through  which  the 
hook  of  the  fall  may  be  passed  (Fig.  49). 
In  order  to  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  a 
more  or  less  uniform  method  of  handling 
drafts  at  the  various  piers  along  the  At- 
lantic    seaboard,     L.     H.     Haight,     and 

FlG.  49. — PLATFORM  SLING  OR  <.-«--••'«,,  T-I 

AIRPLANE  M.   M.   Grass,   of  the   Emergency   Fleet 


CARGO  TRANSFER:  III.  DRAFTS 


139 


FlG.    50. SLINGING    A    SAFE. 


Corporation,  made  a  close  study  of  the  transfer  of  cargo  on  seventeen 
different  piers.  As  a  result  of  their  investigation,  made  especially 
in  the  preparation  of  this  work,  the  following  analysis  of  movements 
and  diagrams  are  submitted.  The 
sketches  and  tables  of  movement 
were  prepared  by  these  gentlemen 
especially  for  this  volume. 

TRANSFER  OF  FREIGHT 

Loading  a  Safe. — As    an    ex- 
ample of  a  heavy  draft  in  a  single 
package,  the  introductory  analysis  will  be  that  of  the  transfer  of  a 
safe    (Fig.   50).     As   these   movements   are   characteristic  of   many 

other  drafts  and  transfers,  the  sub- 
sequent drafts  will  refer  back  to  the 
case  of  the  safe.  It  is,  therefore,  de- 
sirable to  understand  the  various 
movements  in  the  loading  of  this 
safe  preliminary  to  the  study  of 
other  drafts.  (See  next  page.) 

Loading  Barrels  and  Hogs- 
heads.— '  Various  methods  of  sling- 
ing barrels  and  hogsheads  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  diagrams.  Barrels  are  easy  to  handle 
on  the  pier  or  in  the  hold  because  they  roll,  but  they  are  difficult  to 
sling  properly.  The  method  used 
depends  largely  on  the  form,  weight, 
and  strength  of  the  barrel.  Per- 
haps the  most  common  practice  is  to 
sling  two  at  a  time  ("married")  by 
use  of  cant  hooks,  but  this  cannot  be 
done  if  the  chimes  of  the  barrel  will 
not  support  its  weight.  The  Ameri- 
can Sugar  Refining  Company  rec- 
ommends that  barrels  of  sugar  be 
transferred  by  nets,  but  their  rec- 
ommendation is  not  adopted  by  most  stevedores. 

Loading  Bags  of  Sugar,  Grain,  Coffee,  etc. — The  sling  (a 
web  sling,  Figs.  46  and  53)  is  laid  flat  on  the  deck  of  the  pier  and 


FlG.    51. BARRELS    SLUNG 

"MARRIED." 


FlG.    52. — SLINGING  A    HOGSHEAD. 


140 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


the  bags  are  placed  across  it.  The  ends  of  the  sling  are  then  brought 
together,  and  the  rove  is  placed  through  the  bite  and  attached  to  the 
hook  of  the  fall. 


LOADING  A  SAFE 
Classes  of  Work  Done 


Men  Required 

Individual   Duties 

Jobs   Done 

One    superintend- 
ent 

Superintends  entire 
work  of  loading  and 
unloading  ships 

Loads  the  ship  on  paper,  sees  that 
the  ship  is  loaded  evenly  on  both 
wings  and  with  a  drag  after 

One  stevedore 

Supervises  the  stowing 
through  hatch  ;  su- 
pervises the  discharg- 
ing from  hold 

i^orms  the  shape  (gets  the  men  in 
line)  ;  calls  the  gangs;  places  the 
gangs;  keeps  the  gangs  filled; 
sees  that  the  ship  is  loaded  as  the 
superintendent  has  planned  on 
paper 

Two  deck  foremen 

Supervises  loading  his 
end  of  ship;  super- 
vises discharging  his 
end  of  ship 

Gets  required  number  of  gangs  for 
the  hatch;  places  the  gangs  on 
the  job;  looks  after  each  detail  of 
loading  and  unloading;  keeps 
gangs  filled 

One  checker 

Counts  all  men  and 
drafts 

Two  slingers 

Work  on  pier  helping 
prepare  drafts  for 
loading  and  unload- 
ing 

Handles  slings,  trucks,  etc.;  rolls 
or  places  drafts  to  nearest  loading 
point 

One    gangway 
man 

Supervises    signaling 

Signals  to  raise  draft  from  pier  or 
hold  ;  signals  to  stop  draft  on  pier 
or  in  hold;  signals  to  raise  fall 
from  pier  or  hold 

One  winch  runner 

Starts  winch  ;  stops 
winch 

Drum-end  man 
(burton  fall) 

Handles  fall  on  drums 

Puts  two  turns  of  fall  on  drum  ; 
waits  for  signal  ;  at  signal,  puts 
enough  turns  on  drum  to  lift 
draft;  at  signal,  tightens  fall 
enough  to  lift  draft;  keeps  fall 
tight  by  coiling;  to  lower  draft 
loosens  fall  on  drum 

Drum-end  man 
(up-and-down 
fall) 

Handles  fall  on  drum 

Waits  for  signal  ;  at  signal,  puts 
two  or  three  turns  of  fall  on  drum 
to  take  up  slack;  puts  two  or  three 
more  turns  of  fall  on  drum  to 
lift  draft;  puts  two  or  three  more 
turns  of  fall  to  take  full  draft; 
lowers  draft  through  hatch. 

CARGO  TRANSFER:  III.  DRAFTS 


141 


FlG.    53. — A    WEB    SLING   DRAFT 
OF  BAGS. 


The  number  of  bags  to  the  draft  varies  with  the  commodity  and 
with  other  factors.  Six  or  seven  bags  of  raw  sugar  will  make  a  draft 
of  about  2,000  pounds  and  this  is  a  convenient  weight  on  the  customs 
scales.  In  handling  refined  sugar  the 
common  draft  is  twelve  bags. 

Loading  Beef.— Perhaps  the  load- 
ing of  beef  requires  the  least  skill  in 
handling  of  any  freight  making  up  the 
cargo  for  a  ship.  It  is  generally  loaded 
directly  from  the  truck  to  the  ship  in 
order  to  get  it  into  the  refrigerators  as 
soon  as  possible.  It  is  handled  in  a 
"net  sling"  which  is  about  6  by  8  feet, 
with  8-inch  mesh.  The  sling  has  a  rope 
around  the  edge,  with  a  loop  in  the  cen- 
ter of  each  side  and  each  end.  The  loops  on  one  side  and  one 
end  are  longer  than  the  loops  in  the  opposite  side  and  end. 
The  long  loops  are  called  "roves,"  and  the  short  loops  are  called 
"bites." 

When  the  truck  is  backed  to  the  nearest  loading  point  and  the 
net  sling  laid  flat  on  the  floor  of  the  pier,  about  ten  quarters  of  beef 
are  tossed  into  the  net  sling;  the  edges  are  folded  over;  the  roves 
are  passed  through  the  bites  and  on  to  the  burton  hook;  and,  when 
the  signal  is  given  to  hoist  away,  the  sling  is  drawn  taut  and  the  beef 
is  held  securely  until  lowered  into  the  hold. 

At    New    York    in    handling 

frozen  or  chilled  meat  arriving  in 
refrigerator  cars,  the  cars  are 
floated  alongside  the  ship  and  the 
cargo  loaded  overside  from  off- 
shore. This  is  slow  and  expen- 
sive for  ordinary  cargo  but  of  ob- 
vious advantage  in  the  movement 

FIG.   54-A  NET  SLING  FOR  BEEF.  Q£     ^      refrigerator     groups     from 

car    to    ship    with    little    loss    of   temperature. 

Discharging  frozen  mutton  and  other  meat  at  London  has  become 
almost  entirely  a  mechanical,  continuous  motion ;  belt  conveyors  with 
steel  baskets  operating  similar  to  a  banana  unloader  are  lowered 
into  the  hold.  Once  out  of  the  hold,  the  halves  or  quarters  are 


142 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


hooked  on  to  a  meat  hook  on  wheels  that  travel  by  gravity  or  chain 

propulsion   along   the   wharf   to   waiting   cars    (goods   wagons)    or 

drays. 

Loading  Eggs. — Eggs  are  packed  in  rather  flimsy  crates  and 

therefore  must  be  handled  carefully.  In  order  to  eliminate  han- 
dlings the  crates  should  be  stored  on 
the  transit  shed  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  picking-up  place,  or  should 
be  moved  direct  from  the  car  or 
truck  to  the  sling.  If  the  truck 
can  be  backed  up  to  the  loading 
point,  one  man  on  the  truck  can 

FIG.    55.  — PLATFORM    SLING    WITH    pass  the  crates  to  a  second  on  the 
ANGLE  IRONS  TO  PROTECT  pier  floor,  who  places  them  cross- 

FRAGILE   CASES.  .  ,       f 

wise    on    a    platform,    carrier,    or 

"airplane"  (Fig.  55).  Twelve  cases  make  a  draft.  In  order  to 
protect  the  cases  from  being  crushed  by  the  carrier  ropes,  angle 
irons  are  placed  at  the  outside  edges  of  the  upper  tier.  These 
angle  irons,  or  "bosses,"  have  holes  through  which  the  ropes  pass. 
The  lifting  pressure  is  thus  distributed  along  the  crates. 

In  swinging  the  draft  care  must  be  exercised  to  avoid  bumping 
it  against  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  the  hatch  coamings,  or  the  decks. 
This  method  is  used  for  all  flimsy  containers  of  a  regular  shape, 
such  as  crated  fruit. 

Loading  Dried  Apples. — Dried  or  evaporated  apples  in  cases 
are  generally  loaded  on  a  special  platform,  or  airplane.  Since  the 
boxes  are  light  in  weight,  about 
twenty  are  put  in  each  draft,  mak- 
ing a  total  weight  of  between  1,500 
and  2,OOO  pounds.  The  ordinary 
form  of  airplane  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  55). 
To  keep  the  carrier  ropes  from 
crushing  the  boxes,  angle  irons  are  Fi&  s6^t^T^R  LOADING 
sometimes  used  as  described  in  the  IRON  AND  OTHER  METALS 

discussion  of  loading  eggs. 

Oranges,  grapefruit,  and  similar  commodities  are  handled  in 
about  the  same  way. 

Loading  Pigs  and  Billets. — Billets  and  pigs  of  metals  were 
at  one  time  generally  transferred  by  use  of  chain  slings,  and  some  of 


CARGO  TRANSFER:  III.  DRAFTS       143 

the  smaller  steamship  companies  still  use  this  method,  but  modern 
practice  is  to  use  a  special  airplane  (Fig.  56).  This  is  a  platform,  2 
to  6  feet  square,  with  a  ribbed  floor  and  with  boards  4  to  6  inches 
high  around  three  sides.  Ropes  attached  as  shown  in  the  diagram 
balance  the  load  when  it  is  raised, 
although  there  is  danger  that  some 
of  the  pigs  will  fall  out  of  the  open 
side  if  the  airplane  is  tilted  in  that 
direction. 

Loading  the  airplane  simply  con- 
sists in  throwing  on  the  pigs  until 
the  proper  weight  is  obtained.  To 
unload,  one  rope  or  sling  is  detachedFlc-  57-— CHAIN  SLING  FOR  STEEL 

RAILS. 

irom  the  hook,  so  that  hoisting  away 

on  the  other  rope  will  dump  the  pigs  or  bars  in  the  hold.     This  is  a 

quick  way  of  handling  small  pieces  that  are  not  damaged  by  rough 

treatment. 

Loading  Steel  Rails. — An  exceptionally  high  degree  of  skill  is 
required  to  sling  steel  rails,  pipe,  iron  lamp-posts,  and  similarly 
constructed  objects,  in  order  that  the  work  may  be  done  quickly  and 
that  the  bars  may  be  carried  securely  and  at  the  proper  angle. 

A  different  type  of  sling  is  used  in  this  case.  It  consists  of  one 
or  two  chains  forged  to  a  ring  at  one  end  and  terminating  in  a  hook 

at  the  other,  quite  similar  to  cant  hooks 
just  described  but  removable  from  the 
fall  (Figs.  57  and  58).  When  handling 
rails,  the  hook  of  the  chain  is  passed 
around  the  end  of  a  bundle  of  four  or 
five  rails  and  hooked  on  to  the  chain 
with  the  point  directed  toward  the  long 
part  of  the  draft.  The  ring  is  then 
FIG.  58-— DOUBLE  CHAIN  SLING  placed  on  the  hook  of  the  fall,  and  the 

FOR   LARGE   IRON   PIPES.  ....  .      ,  ,  ., 

draft  is   raised  far  enough  to  allow  a 

block  of  wood  to  be  set  under  the  end.  The  draft  is  lowered  on 
this  block  and  the  chain  is  slid  along  the  rails  for  a  distance  of  about 
one-third  their  length.  It  is  now  in  a  position  that  allows  the 
draft  when  elevated  to  hang  securely  and  almost  perpendicularly. 
The  rails  can  thus  be  lowered  into  the  hold  and  can  swing  toward 
the  stowing  point  more  easily  than  if  they  were  in  a  horizontal  posi- 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


FlG.   59- — SLINGING  AUTOMOBILES. 


tion.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  chain  sling  is  tight  and  that  it 
exerts  sufficient  pressure  on  all  the  rails  or  pipes  in  the  draft  to 
prevent  any  one  from  slipping  out  and  going  through  the  bottom 

of  the  ship  or  the  lighter.  All  such 
long,  heavy  articles  are  troublesome 
to  load. 

Loading  Automobiles. — Auto- 
mobiles for  overseas  shipments  are 
usually  partially  demounted  and 
packed  in  large,  strong  boxes,  about 
4  by  6  by  12  feet  in  dimensions. 
The  large  cases  for  the  army  trucks 
during  the  World  War  were  about  3  by  4  by  23  feet.  These 
boxes,  after  being  landed  on  the  pier,  are  rolled  on  iron  pipes 
to  the  nearest  picking-up  point,  and  the  sling  is  placed  around  them. 
The  sling  is  placed  just  to  one  side  of  the  center  of  the  box.  A  line 
is  made  fast  to  the  sling,  passed  around  the  long  end  of  the  box,  and 
fastened  to  the  sling  on  the  opposite  side.  This  permits  the  box  to 
tip  at  an  angle  which  makes  it  easy  to  lower  through  the  hatch, 
and  yet  prevents  it  from  slipping  out  of  the  sling.  It  is  best  to  have 
the  farside  winch  take  the  slack  of  the  sling  before  tying  on  the  line. 
Loading  Assembled  Locomotives, — The  accompanying  dia- 
gram (Fig.  60)  illustrates  the 
method  of  loading  locomotives, 
used  in  forwarding  shipments  to 
the  American  Expeditionary 
Forces.  The  locomotives  were  run 
upon  car  floats,  which  were  towed 
to  the  side  of  the  floating  derrick 
stationed  alongside  the  receiving 
vessel.  Only  a  few  vessels  having  exceptionally  large  hatches  could 
be  used  to  carry  these  assembled  locomotives. 

In  the  frontispiece  the  locomotive  has  been  raised  from  the  car 
float  and  swung  over  the  crane  barge.  When  the  guy  line  is  changed 
it  will  be  raised,  swung  over  the  hatch  of  the  vessel  to  the  left,  and 
lowered  into  the  hold.  The  transfer  of  the  locomotive,  weighing 
150,500  pounds,  can  be  accomplished  in  twenty  minutes.  It  is 
necessary  to  keep  the  locomotive  "head  up"  in  spite  of  the  tendency 
to  revolve  with  the  crane.  This  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
guy  ropes. 


FlG.   60. — LOADING   LOCOMOTIVE. 


CARGO  TRANSFER:    III.  DRAFTS 


MOST  IMPORTANT  TYPES  OF  CONTAINERS 

The  twelve  or  fourteen  pieces  of  cargo  listed  and  described  above 
do  not  include  all  of  the  package  freight  a  stevedore  has  to  handle, 
but  were  selected  because  they  cover  every  operation  in  loading  and 
discharging.  To  list  more  would  simply  mean  a  useless  repetition. 

Of  the  various  kinds  of  merchandise  carried  by  ships  to-day,  we 
have  been  able  to  list  4,761  items,  and  this  number  is  approximately 
correct.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  this  great  variety  of  material 
is  carried  in  only  forty  different  kinds  of  containers ;  many  of  these 
containers  differ  only  slightly.  While  the  number  of  packages  will 
probably  increase,  the  number  of  different  containers  will  undoubt- 
edly decrease  because  of  improvements  in  packing. 

Below  is  tabulated  alphabetically  the  different  kinds  of  con- 
tainers, and  the  number  of  different  kinds  of  articles  usually  packed 
in  such  a  container.2 


Bags   371 

Bales    445 

Barrels 438 

Bars    8 

Baskets    170 

Boxes   395 

Bulk   50 

Bunch 8 

Bundles    160 

Butts   4 

Cakes    29 

Cans  6 

Carboys    10 

Cases    1749 


Casks    115 

Chests 8 

Coils    8 

Crates    160 

Cylinders   19 

Demijohns 3 

Drums    80 

Firkins   2 

Hampers    6 

Hogsheads 38 

Kegs   1 66 

Packages    91 

Pails   4 

Pieces   31 


Pipes    2 

Puncheons    2 

Reels    22 

Rolls    48 

Sacks   60 

Scroom 3 

Slabs 4 

Spools 4 

Straps  4 

Tierces 38 

Tubs 8 

Trunks 2 

Total    .              ,  .  4,761 


2  Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes,  by  Thomas  R.  Taylor.  Misc.  Series  No.  92, 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce.  Government  Printing  Office, 
1920. 


CHAPTER  IX 

TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS1 
TRANSFER  BY  CRANE 

The  question  of  transfer  by  crane  deserves  the  most  careful 
consideration.  In  the  first  place,  most  of  the  great  foreign  ports  are 
equipped  with  cranes  for  transfer  instead  of  the  usual  deck  equip- 


FIG.  61. — A  TIMBER  STIFF-LEG  DERRICK.     (Courtesy  of  Edward  F.  Terry  Manu- 
facturing Co.,  New  York.) 

ment  and  rigging  or  cargo  masts  of  the  type  that  have  been  dis- 
cussed in  connection  with  American  ports.  In  addition,  there  is  the 
very  animated  controversy  between  the  old  school  of  American  port 
engineers  and  the  new  school,  particularly  the  members  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Terminal  Engineers,  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  cargo  masts, 
ship's  tackle,  and  cranes  for  the  transfer  movement.  By  all  means, 
persons  connected  with  the  steamship  business,  whether  ashore  or 
afloat,  must  be  sufficiently  familiar  with  the  various  types  of  cranes 

1  By  R.  S.  MacElwee. 

146 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS  147 

to  recognize  them  on  sight  and  know  their  outstanding  features,  their 
names,  and  the  services  that  they  are  meant  to  perform. 

In  this  discussion  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  usual  wharf 
crane,  as  developed  abroad  and  here,  has  not  a  very  much  greater 
capacity  than  the  cargo  winch  and  mast  for  the  usual  transfer  of 
package  freight.  The  heavy  draft,  such  as  locomotives,  automobiles, 
large  pieces  of  machinery,  castings,  heavy  ordnance,  and  other  heavy 


FIG.  62. — GUY  DERRICK.     (Courtesy  Terry.) 

objects  are  handled  by  specially  constructed  heavy-duty  cranes. 
Wharf  cranes  are,  therefore,  divided  into  two  large  groups,  light 
duty  and  heavy  duty.  The  drafts  are  handled  much  the  same  by  a 
crane  as  by  any  other  transfer  equipment.  After  the  draft  is  made 
up  the  hook  of  the  fall  pendent  from  the  crane  is  attached  to  the  long 
rove  and  the  draft  is  lifted  and  lowered  just  as  it  would  be  by  a 
burton-and-fall  rig. 

Stiff-leg  Derrick. — The  simplest  form  of  a  hoisting  machine 
of  the  crane  or  derrick  type  is  the  stiff -leg  derrick,  or  stiff -leg  (Fig. 


148 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


61).  This  is  the  form  usually  found  in  building  construction,  but 
can  be  used  to  advantage  at  any  temporary  wharf  or  for  handling 
bulk  material  in  small  quantities  from  scows.  The  boom  from  which 
the  block  and  hook  hang  to  lift  the  draft  is  stepped  at  the  base  of 
the  vertical  "stiff-leg."  It  is  raised  or  lowered  by  cables  from  the 
masthead  and  can  be  slued  about  through  from  2OO  to  260  degrees. 


FlG.   63. — MASTHEAD  TOP   IRONS 
OF  A  GUY  DERRICK. 


FlG    64. — SPIDER   PLATE    AND    SHACKLES. 


FlG.    65. — GUY   SPIDER    PLATE. 

The  vertical  mast  or  leg  is  held  in  place  by  two  bracing  timbers  from 
the  masthead  to  the  ground,  or  to  the  end  of  a  sill,  ground  beam  or 
base  beam.  The  three  timbers  form  a  right-angle  triangle.  In  fact, 
there  are  two  timber  triangles  with  one  side — the  vertical  leg — 
common  to  both.  The  length  of  the  boom  is  usually  one  and  one- 
half  times  the  length  of  the  stiff-leg,  or  mast.  With  the  horizontal 
leg  securely  anchored  to  the  ground  at  each  end  it  will  be  seen  that 
this  frame  is  capable  of  great  stability  against  the  tendency  to 
tip  over. 

A-Frame  Derrick. — A  modification  of  the  stiff-leg  is  the  A- 
frame  derrick.  The  "mast"  in  this  case  consists  of  a  three-timber 
tower  or  pyramid  with  a  hinged  boom  similar  to  that  of  a  stiff-leg 
derrick,  stepped  in  a  socket  set  in  a  sill  or  horizontal  timber  connect- 
ing the  feet  of  two  of  the  timbers,  thus  forming  a  letter  "A,"  crossed 
at  the  bottom.  This  form  is  used  largely  for  heavy-duty  or  con- 
fined areas,  such  as  barges,  lighters,  etc.  These  simple  derricks 
may  be  operated  by  hand  or  rigged  with  steam,  gas,  or  electric 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS 


149 


winches.  They  are  capable  of  construction  from  small  to  very 
large  capacities. 

Stiff- leg  derricks  may  be  built  either  of  timber  or  steel. 

The  Sheer  Leg  Derrick  is  quite  similar  to  the  "A"  frame. 

Traveling  Stiff-leg  Derrick. — A  stiff-leg  or  A-frame  derrick 
may  be  placed  on  a  platform  and  this  platform  mounted  on  wheels 
that  run  on  tracks.  In  this  form  the  stiff-leg  derrick  becomes  a 
"traveling"  derrick  because  it  is  possible  for  it  to  be  moved  along  a 
track  from  one  point  to  another. 


FIG.  66. — LOCOMOTIVE  CRANE.     (Courtesy  Brown  Hoisting  Machine  Co.) 

The  terminology  of  derricks  and  cranes  is  very  simple,  as  it  is 
built  up  descriptively  as  are  the  formulas  in  organic  chemistry. 

Guy  Derrick. — The  guy  derrick  is  used  much  like  an  A-frame 
on  the  stiff-leg  derrick.  In  the  place  of  the  A-frame,  however,  the 
vertical  leg  or  mast  is  kept  in  an  upright  position  and  given  resist- 
ance against  the  tendency  to  tip  over  in  lifting  a  load  by  running 
guy  ropes  from  a  guy  spider,  with  shackles,  in  four  or  five  directions 
from  the  masthead  to  anchors  at  some  distance  from  the  mast. 

Locomotive  Crane. — The  locomotive  crane,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, is  a  steam  crane  mounted  on  trucks  and  capable  of  moving 
along  a  standard  gauge  railroad  track  like  a  locomotive.  It  is  a 
very  useful  instrument,  particularly  in  terminals  where  the  traffic 
is  not  sufficiently  heavy  to  warrant  extensive  installations  of  heavy- 
duty  cranes.  Where  the  locomotive  crane  is  of  high  lifting  capacity, 


150  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

and  therefore  needed  only  occasionally  at  various  points  along  an 
extended  water  front,  its  mobility  is  of  great  value,  as  it  can  be 
directed  to  that  part  of  the  water  front  where  heavy  transfer  work 
may  happen  to  be  desired.  Until  traffic  over  a  wharf  becomes  of 
sufficient  volume  to  support  the  overhead  of  a  complete  gantry- 
crane  equipment,  one  or  two  locomotive  cranes  will  take  care  of  the 
situation  in  conjunction  with  ship's  winches  and  cargo  masts  for  the 
lighter  work. 

As  a  rule,  the  boom  of  the  locomotive  crane  is  hinged  and  can 
be  lowered  and  raised.  When  the  locomotive  crane  is  traveling  the 
boom  is  usually  lowered  to  a  horizontal  position  along  tracks.  The 
boom  may  be  slued  as  well  as  raised  and  lowered. 

A  revolving  or  full-circle  locomotive  crane  is  the  usual  type. 
The  drums  and  winding  apparatus  are  mounted  on  a  small  turn- 
table that  is  capable  of  revolving  through  a  full  circle.  This  is 
much  more  positive  and  rapid  than  sluing. 

Locomotive  cranes  are  self-contained  units,  that  is,  being  steam 
cranes  they  are  independent  of  other  sources  of  power.  The  termi- 
nals of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  are  fitted  with  self-contained 
locomotive  steam  A-frame  cranes  mounted  on  wide-rimmed  wheels. 

Tower  Crane. — A  tower  crane  is  a  crane  mounted  on  a  tower. 
The  crane  itself  may  be  constructed  on  the  principle  of  a  stiff-leg 
derrick,  a  guy  derrick,  or  any  other  type,  and  with  a  fixed  or  a 
hinged  boom.  Electric  power  is  generally  used,  as  it  is  not  an 
advantageous  installation  to  have  a  steam  crane  on  a  tower. 

This  crane  may  be  of  the  full-circle  type,  in  which  case  the  rig 
would  be  called  a  revolving  tower  crane. 

Traveling  Revolving  Tower  Crane. — A  traveling  revolving 
tower  crane  is  simply  a  revolving  tower  crane  placed  on  a  tower 
that  is  capable  of  being  moved  along  tracks,  that  is,  a  tower  that 
can  be  made  to  travel.  . 

In  this  nomenclature  it  will  be  noted  that,  like  the  nomenclature 
of  organic  chemistry,  it  is  possible  to  string  the  names  of  the  compo- 
nent parts  together  until  the  full  name  of  an  installation  describes 
it  completely.  For  instance,  a  crane  may  be  described  as  a  hinged- 
boom  electrical  revolving  traveling  tower  crane.  To  this  may  be 
added  the  capacity  or  "heavy  duty."  The  hinged-boom  traveling 
and  revolving  electric  tower  cranes  are  the  type  used  so  largely  in 
shipyards  (see  Fig.  67). 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS  151 

Hammerhead  Crane. — The  cantilever  crane  is  usually  a  heavy- 
duty  rig  and  is  found  in  the  fitting-out  basins  of  shipbuilding  plants. 
It  is  usually  a  fixed-tower  revolving  crane,  but  smaller  types  may 
be  mounted  on  traveling  towers  (Fig.  68).  "Cantilever"  refers 
to  the  characteristic  of  the  arm  of  the  crane  that  extends  out  over 
the  object  to  be  lifted.  In  this  case,  instead  of  being  a  boom  at  an 
angle  and  supported  by  cables  from  the  top  of  the  boom,  the  arm 
extends  horizontally  and  is  of  cantilever  construction,  that  is,  it  is 


FlG.    67. — A   TRAVELING   REVOLVING  TOWER    CRANE    FOR   SHIPYARD    WORK.      At    the 

port  of  London  many  are  used  for  wharf  work.     (Courtesy  of  Terry.} 

supported  by  one  end  only.  The  weight  or  load  being  carried  by 
the  crane,  including  its  own  weight,  is  transferred  to  the  chassis 
of  the  main  supporting  column  or  tower. 

If  not  counterbalanced,  such  a  tower,  with  a  cantilever  arm 
projecting  from  the  top,  would  tip  over.  The  counter  weight  is  made 
up  partly  by  the  electrical  winding  machinery.  The  counter  weights 
and  machinery  being  placed  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  tower  from 
the  lifting  arm  give  the  crane  the  appearance  of  a  hammer,  from 
which  the  name  "hammerhead"  crane  is  derived. 

In  cantilever  cranes,  particularly  for  heavy  duty,  the  horizontal 
movement  of  the  load  is  performed  by  a  running  gear  or  traveling 
carriage  that  is  suspended  from  rails  underneath  the  cantilever  arm 


152 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


and  is  drawn  back  and  forth  along  the  track  by  cables  or  operated  by 
its  own  motors.  Some  of  the  very  large  cranes  have  several  of  these 
carriages  traveling  horizontally  along  the  cantilever  arm  and  also 
may  have  small  cranes  traveling  along  the  top  of  this  boom.  The 


^  ko.ooo* 
£A>ACIT» 


i9  'O  " Jcf* 


FlG.    68. — HEAVY    DUTY    REVOLVING    HAMMERHEAD    TOWER    CRANE.       (Courtesy    of 

W  ellman-Se  aw  er-M  organ  Co.) 

complete  name  for  one  of  these  heavy-duty  cranes  would  be  "revolv- 
ing hammerhead  tower  crane."  However,  in  order  not  to  confuse  the 
cantilever  hammerhead  with  the  movable-boom  crane,  one  is  called 
simply  a  hammerhead  crane,  and  the  other  a  tower  crane. 

The  Gantry. — In  the  discussion  of  water-front  equipment  the 
word  "gantry"  is  used  probably  more  than  any  other  single  name 
of  a  crane.  A  gantry  crane  is  a  crane  mounted  on  a  gantry.  "To 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS  153 

gant"  means  to  overhang  or  to  span.  A  gantry,  therefore,  is  any 
framework  that  spans.  For  instance,  in  railroading,  the  signal 
blocks  above  the  tracks  are  mounted  on  a  gantry — a  framework  that 
spans  the  tracks. 

In  a  wharf  gantry  crane,  the  framework  spans  the  wharf  apron 
or  the  outer  part  of  the  wharf  toward  the  water,  and  usually  this 
spanning  is  in  order  to  leave  the  space  clear  the  full  length  of  the 
wharf  apron  for  the  railroad  sidings  that  are  laid  upon  it.  A  wharf 
gantry  crane  has  to  span  from  one  to  three  tracks  and  sometimes,  in 
addition,  a  landing  platform  of  5  to  10  feet  in  width. 

Gantry  cranes,  and  particularly  wharf  gantry  cranes,  in  which 


FIG.  69. — A  GANTRY  CRANE  WITH  TRAVELING  HOIST.     (Courtesy  of  Terry.) 

the  interest  of  this  study  centers,  are  of  several  varieties.  There  are 
two  sets  of  names,  those  applying  to  or  modifying  the  word  "gantry" 
and  those  modifying  the  word  "crane."  There  are  two  principal 
types  of  gantries:  (i)  portal  or  full-arch,  and  (2)  semiportal  or 
half-arch.  Both  types  are  usually  "traveling"  and  run  on  tracks 
along  the  wharf  front. 

The  Full-arch  Gantry  Crane. — The  full-arch  gantry  revolving 
jib  crane  shown  in  Figure  70  (Shepard  Electric  Crane  &  Hoist 
Company)  may  be  analyzed  as  follows : 

The  gantry  itself  is  a  full-arch,  as  it  has  both  feet  on  the  ground, 
and  it  is  called  also  a  "portal"  because  it  looks  like  a  gateway. 
Mounted  upon  this  gantry  is  a  revolving  crane.  The  hoisting 
machinery  and  the  revolving  and  locomotion  mechanism  are  con- 
tained in  the  cab.  This  cab  is  mounted  on  trucks  that  revolve  on  a 


'54 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


small  circular  track.  The  jib  of  the  crane  is  fixed,  that  is,  it  cannot 
be  moved  up  or  down. 

The  crane  is  a  traveling  crane,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  drawing, 
that  is,  the  gantry  is  mounted  on  wheels  and  the  crane  is  capable  of 
moving  itself  along  the  rails  on  the  wharf  apron. 

Figure  71  shows  a  traveling  semiportal  gantry  revolving  jib 
crane.  The  only  difference  as  to  type  between  this  crane  and  the  one 


FlG.     70. — A     FULL-ARCH     GANTRY    REVOLVING    JIB     CRANE.        (Courtesy    Shepard 

Electric  Crane  &  Hoist  Co.] 


just  described  is  in  the  shape  of  the  gantry.  In  this  case  the  gantry 
has  one  vertical  leg  and  one  horizontal  leg.  The  inshore  end  of  the 
horizontal  leg  with  its  traveling  wheel  rests  upon  a  rail  that  extends 
along  the  face  of  the  wharf  shed.  This  rail  is  mounted  on  brackets 
attached  to  the  vertical  columns,  as  in  the  case  of  shop  crane  rails. 
The  full-arch  gantry  crane  is  usually  on  wharves  that  have  no  sheds. 
Compared  with  a  locomotive  crane,  its  advantage  is  that  it  occupies 
less  space  on  the  wharf.  By  putting  the  hoisting  machinery  up  on  a 
gantry  there  need  be  kept  open  only  the  two  crane  rails,  leaving 


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156 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS 


157 


space  for  railroad  cars  and  tracks  to  pass  under  the  crane,  or  space 
for  depositing  merchandise. 

When  there  is  a  wharf  shed,  the  semiportal  gantry  has  a  further 
advantage,  because  putting  the  crane  rail  along  the  face  of  the  shed 
removes  from  the  working  area  both  inside  legs  of  the  crane  itself 
and  the  space  occupied  by  the  rail,  leaving  this  space  free  for  cargo 
handling.  In  practically  all  modern  ports  the  accepted  type  of 


S  TOH 


FlG.    73. — A    HEAVY-DUTY   FULL-ARCH    GANTRY   REVOLVING   CRANE   WITH    A    HINGED 

BOOM.     (Courtesy  Hey  I  &  Patterson.) 
\ 

crane   is   the   semiportal   gantry   revolving   jib   crane.     Light-duty 
cranes  are  usually  constructed  with  a  fixed  boom. 

Hinged-boom  Traveling  Semiportal  Gantry  Crane. — This  crane, 
shown  in  Figure  72,  differs  from  the  preceding  only  in  that  the 
boom  is  movable  or  adjustable  instead  of  fixed.  Four  such  cranes 
mounted  on  semiportal  gantries  were  built  at  the  Army  Supply  Base 
in  Boston  and  constitute  one  of  the  most  modern  types  of  wharf 
equipment  in  the  United  States. 

Figure  73  illustrates  a  full-portal  gantry  revolving  jib  crane  with 
a  hinged  boom.  This  particular  crane  is  built  for  heavy  duty,  20 
tons  capacity,  and  the  jib,  being  hinged,  may  be  elevated  almost  to 


158 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


the  perpendicular.  This  is  the  usual  type  of  heavy-duty  open-wharf 
installation. 

All  gantry  wharf  cranes  revolve. 

Light-duty  cranes  of  two  to  three  tons  capacity  are  being  pre- 
ferred more  and  more  for  the  usual  miscellaneous  cargo  transfer 
between  ship  and  wharf.  The  principal  reason  for  this  is  the  lower 
cost  of  construction  for  each  individual  crane  and  the  lower  cost  of 
power  and  operation.  Each  cycle  usually  requires  about  forty-five 
seconds.  Starting  with  the  boom  inshore  we  have  (i)  lifting  the 
draft,  (2)  revolving  the  boom  and  draft  through  approximately  90 
degrees  to  a  point  above  the  hatch,  (3)  lowering  the  draft  into  the 


FIG.  74. — SHOP  CRANE.     (Courtesy  of  Terry.} 

hold,  (4)  raising  the  hook,  (5)  revolving  the  empty  hook  back 
again  to  above  the  picking-up  point,  and  (6)  lowering  the  hook  to 
receive  the  next  draft.  In  each  cycle  the  crane  must  start  and  stop 
twice.  If  a  crane  is  very  heavy  there  is  much  more  inertia  to  be 
overcome  in  starting  as  compared  with  a  light  crane,  and  also  the 
momentum  that  must  be  checked  by  the  brake  when  the  point  of  rest 
has  been  reached  is  much  greater.  For  many  years  the  prevailing 
type  of  crane  in  most  European  ports  was  approximately  three  tons, 
but  the  more  advanced  harbor  engineers  in  the  United  States,  advo- 
cate a  one  and  one-half  or  two  ton  crane  for  the  usual  wharf  transfer 
work. 

Shop  Crane. — The  shop  crane  is  the  familiar  crane  for  inside 
work.     Shop  cranes,  unless  otherwise  stated,  are  understood  to  be 


159 


160  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

traveling  shop  cranes.  They  consist  of  a  bridge  extending  across 
the  bay  of  a  shop  or  a  wharf  shed  of  a  warehouse  and  resting  on 
rails  mounted  on  the  roof-supporting  columns  on  the  sides  of  the 
bay.  These  cranes  travel  along  the  rails  at  the  space  spanning  the 
bay.  A  carriage  with  the  requisite  winding  mechanism  and  hook 
travels  from  one  end  of  the  bridge  to  the  other.  By  moving  the 
bridge  the  length  of  the  shop,  and  moving  the  carriage  with  the 
hook  crosswise  on  the  bridge,  every  square  foot  of  floor  space  in  the 
bay  in  which  the  crane  works  can  be  covered. 

Heavy-duty  Cranes. — It  is  obvious  that  if  cranes  are  designed 
for  operation  at  low  capacity  in  favor  of  rapid  movement  and 
economy  of  current  consumption,  other  provisions  must  be  made 
to  handle  the  heavy  cargo. 

As  has  been  pointed  out  in  this  work  and  elsewhere,  it  is  found 
to  be  more  advantageous  to  run  flat  cars  or  gondola  cars,  loaded 
with  heavy  articles,  to  an  uncovered  wharf  fitted  with  car  tracks  and 
heavy-duty  cranes  or  derricks  and  discharge  the  cars  on  to  a  lighter. 
The  large  packages  are  transferred  by  the  heavy-duty  wharf  crane 
to  a  lighter.  The  lighter  is  towed  alongside  the  ship  and  a  heavy- 
duty  floating  derrick  puts  the  heavy  packages  of  merchandise  into 
the  hold  from  the  water  side.  This  has  the  advantage  of  centraliz- 
ing the  relatively  occasional  utilization  of  the  heavy  hoisting  equip- 
ment at  two  points,  uncovered  wharf  and  floating  derrick,  making  it 
"rentable"  or  a  paying  investment.  There  should  be  an  uncovered 
heavy-duty  wharf  crane  for  every  ten  or  twelve  to  twenty  general 
merchandise  berths.  This  system  also  has  the  further  advantage 
of  not  congesting  the  wharves  with  large  and  bulky  packages 
and  leaving  ship's  tackle  or  wharf  cranes  entirely  for  the  lighter 
packages. 

The  floating  derricks  or  floating  cranes  are  simply  the  usual  types 
of  cranes  mounted  on  heavy  floats.  The  favorite  form  in  New  York 
is  a  stiff-leg  or  A-frame  derrick  mounted  on  a  float. 

Bridge  Crane. — The  bridge  crane,  which  has  reached  its  best 
development  in  the  ore  and  coal  stock  piles  of  the  Great  Lakes,  is 
simply  a  glorified  traveling  gantry  crane  with  a  cantilever  extension. 
The  pendent,  or  grab  bucket,  is  on  a  traveling  carriage  on  rails 
underneath  the  bridge,  rather  than  a  jib  or  boom  or  other  revolving 
crane  structure  resting  on  the  gantry.  The  usual  wharf  gantry 
crane  spans  from  10  to  40  feet,  while  the  bridge  crane  may  span 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS 


161 


several  hundred  feet.  The  water  end  is  hinged  and  is  drawn  up,  in 
order  not  to  foul  the  spars  or  rigging  of  a  vessel  entering  her  berth, 
and  lowered  over  the  hatch  when  the  ship  is  made  fast.  The  car- 
riage travels  along  the  underside  of  the  bridge  from  above  the  hatch 
to  the  point  of  deposit. 

The  particular  advantage  of  a  bridge   crane   is  its   ability  to 


FIG.  76. — A  STRAIGHT-LINE  WHARF  CRANE.     (Courtesy  Shaw  Electric  Crane  Co., 
Manning,  Maxwell  Gf  Moor,  Inc.) 

handle  heavy  articles  from  an  open  wharf  directly  into  a  vessel. 
For  instance,  an  open  wharf  may  be  used  for  storing  large  quan- 
tities of  barrels  of  oil,  crates  of  automobiles,  or  for  ordnance.  The 
new  Army  Supply  Base  at  Boston  has  an  open  wharf,  but  the  bridge 
crane  has  not  been  installed.  The  East  Harbor  at  Berlin,  on  the 
River  Spree,  has  such  a  bridge  crane  for  handling  building  ma- 
terials, particularly  bricks,  which  are  loaded  at  the  brickyard  into 
the  containers  that  are  placed  upon  the  barge.  The  movable  body 


162  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

is  transferred  by  the  bridge  crane  and  placed  upon  the  chassis  of  a 
motor  truck.  At  Brussels,  in  Belgium,  the  harbor  equipment  includes 
a  very  excellent  bridge  crane  for  handling  plate  glass  from  the 
railroad  cars  to  water  craft. 

A  characteristic  of  the  bridge  crane  is  its  greater  span  in  heavy- 
duty  uncovered  wharf  work.  The  fact  that  the  hoisting  apparatus 
with  the  hook  runs  in  a  straight  line  from  above  the  hatch  instead 
of  revolving  at  the  end  of  a  boom  is  conducive  to  rapid  work  with 
little  lost  motion. 

Roof  cranes,  as  found  at  Liverpool  and  elsewhere,  are  simply  the 
usual  electric  revolving  jib  crane  mounted  on  the  roof  of  a  ware- 
house or  wharf  shed  instead  of  on  a  gantry;  or,  to  put  it  another 
way,  the  roof  is  the  gantry. 

Straight-line  Crane. — One  of  the  latest  developments  in  crane 
construction,  an  example  of  which  is  to  be  found  on  Pier  6  of  the 
East  River — one  of  the  New  York  terminals  of  the  New  York  State 
Barge  Canal — is  the  straight-line  crane.  This  crane  is  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  other  forms  that  have  been  mentioned  but  is  of  the 
bridge-crane  family.  The  supporting  carriage  travels  along  the 
roof,  but  the  boom,  instead  of  being  hinged  at  one  end,  is  hinged 
near  the  middle  and  supported  by  a  stirrup  dropped  from  the  car- 
riage to  a  level  that  permits  one  end  of  the  boom  to  extend  into  the 
wharf  shed.  The  boom  may  be  drawn  up  to  an  almost  vertical 
position,  and  when  lowered  one  end  extends  over  the  hatch  of  the 
vessel  and  the  other  end  extends  into  the  shed.  The  crane  does  not 
revolve  but  the  hook  and  hoisting  carriage  travel  back  and  forth  in  a 
straight  line  as  in  the  case  of  a  bridge  crane.  This  gives  the  rig  the 
name  of  the  straight-line  wharf  crane.  The  advantages  claimed  for 
this  type  are  several :  less  dead-weight  movement,  as  only  the  hoist- 
ing drum  and  carriage,  not  the  entire  crane,  moves ;  travel  in  straight 
line  instead  of  through  an  arc  of  a  circle,  thus  permitting  more 
cranes  to  work  on  a  single  vessel  without  interference  with  one 
another;  a  larger  area  for  deposit  or  picking  up  of  drafts,  thus 
relieving  congestion  at  one  of  the  principal  points  of  congestion; 
transfer  from  hold  directly  to  within  the  transit  shed,  thus  permit- 
ting the  men  to  work  under  cover  in  bad  weather.  This  type  requires 
an  especially  high  transit  shed  to  enable  the  boom  to  clear  the  ship's 
rail  and  still  extend  into  the  shed. 


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163 


164  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

RELATIVE  ADVANTAGES  OF  SHIP'S  TACKLE  AND  SHORE  CRANES 

Ship's  Tackle  versus  Crane  Equipment. — Cranes  are  ex- 
pensive to  install,  and  unless  the  equipment  is  used  almost  continu- 
ously, that  is,  unless  a  large  volume  of  freight  is  handled  per  annum, 
the  capital  investment  causes  a  disadvantageous  overhead  as  com- 
pared with  the  tackle  that  the  ship  must  always  have  with  it,  whether 
the  cranes  are  installed  at  some  ports  or  not. 

Cranes  occupy  a  considerable  amount  of  wharf  space,  and  this 
space  is  not  available  on  the  narrow  piers  that  have  become  cus- 
tomary in  American  ports. 

The  installation  of  cranes  increases  the  cost  of  pier  construction, 
as  both  the  pier  structure  itself  and  the  pier  shed  must  be  of  suf- 
ficient strength  to  carry  the  additional  load  of  the  crane. 

On  the  narrow  American  piers  that  do  not  have  rail  connections, 
one  of  the  chief  advantages  of  the  crane  is  lost — that  of  loading 
discharged  merchandise  on  to  flat  cars  and  gondola  cars  after  the 
vessel  has  left  its  berth. 

The  cranes  require  a  great  deal  of  space  because  of  swinging  the 
boom  through  a  large  arc.  This  usually  makes  it  impossible  to  work 
more  than  one  fall  to  the  hatch.  The  cargo-mast  and  burton-and- 
fall  rig  moves  the  freight  in  a  direct  line,  and  the  amount  of  time 
saved  in  the  actual  passage  of  the  draft  between  the  wharf  and  the 
holds  is  in  favor  of  the  ship's  tackle  and  cargo  mast  rig  as  against 
the  crane.  However,  this  advantage  is  slight  and  depends  largely 
upon  the  skill  of  the  operators,  a  crane  being  more  rapid  in  skillful 
hands.  It  takes  more  energy  or  power  to  revolve  the  entire  crane 
boom  and  house  than  to  raise  the  draft  and  burton  it  between  the 
wharf  and  hold. 

Many  other  arguments  that  are  advanced  in  favor  of  the  Ameri- 
can system  mean  very  little.  For  instance,  it  is  stated  that  the 
European  steamship  companies,  when  they  built  the  piers  in  Hobo- 
ken,  did  not  copy  their  own  home  ports  but  copied  the  American  port 
because  of  the  superiority  of  the  New  York  system.  The  answer  to 
this,  on  the  other  hand,  is  that  the  wharves  and  quays  built  for  these 
same  companies  in  their  home  ports  in  expanding  their  service  were 
built  according  to  plans  of  their  home  ports,  not  according  to  the 
American  ports.  If  the  American  system  is  superior,  why  was  it  not 
copied  in  recent  port  improvements  abroad?  This  argument  is 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS  165 

"fifty-fifty,"  the  answer  being,  of  course,  that  the  prevailing  system 
at  either  port  is  followed. 

Cranes  versus  Ship's  Tackle. — This  caption  is  misleading,  be- 
cause, while  there  may  be  competition  or  relative  merit  between  the 
crane  system  and  the  ship's  tackle  system,  the  functions  of  the  two 
systems  are  somewhat  different.  It  will  promote  a  more  beneficial 
argument  to  consider  the  two  systems  as  antagonistic. 

The  advantages  of  the  crane  transfer  are  enumerated  as  follows : 
The  crane  reduces  the  amount  of  hard  labor,  that  is,  the  drum-end 
man  and  winch  runner  is  displaced  by  a  man  sitting  in  a  protected 
cab  on  the  crane,  who  controls  the  various  movements  of  lifting, 
lowering,  and  sluing  by  means  of  levers.  Also,  the  crane  operator 
suffers  less  fatigue  than  is  given  by  the  jar,  vibration,  and  the  noise 
of  the  winches. 

Considerably  fewer  men  are  needed  in  the  transfer  movement. 
When  cranes  alone  are  used  the  only  member  of  the  crew  on  the  deck 
of  the  ship  is  the  gang  captain  or  signal  man.  One  man  in  the  cab 
of  the  crane  replaces  one  or  two  winch  runners  (one  if  right-hand 
and  left-hand  winches  are  operated  by  one  man)  and  one  or  two 
drum-end  men. 

The  rigging  of  the  ship's  tackle  is  dispensed  with.  The  crane  is 
always  rigged ;  it  only  has  to  move  along  the  rails  on  which  it  travels 
to  the  point  at  which  it  is  to  work.  This  is  all  controlled  by  a  lever 
in  the  cab. 

The  point  of  deposit  on  the  wharf  is  larger  with  the  crane  than 
with  the  burton  and  fall.  The  point  of  deposit  for  the  burton  and  fall 
is  only  about  8  by  10  feet,  while  that  of  a  crane  may  be  8  or  10  feet 
wide  and  20  to  30  feet  long.  Congestion  is  relieved  at  the  point  of 
deposit,  because  it  is  possible  to  put  down  a  second  draft  before  the 
first  draft  is  completely  cleared  away  and  because  the  longshoremen 
can  work  continuously  along  the  area  without  having  a  draft  "hang" 
or  remain  suspended  above  them  while  the  preceding  draft  is  being 
removed. 

The  crane  is  usually  in  a  better  mechanical  condition  and  more 
workable  than  the  ship's  winch,  due  to  the  exposed  position  of  the 
ship's  winches,  the  working  of  a  vessel  in  a  heavy  sea,  carelessness 
of  casual  operators,  and  other  circumstances.  The  steam  fittings  of 
the  winch  are  often  loose,  steam  is  lost,  or  the  winch  itself  becomes 
out  of  alignment.  Aside  from  the  lack  of  efficiency  due  to  steam 


166  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

condensation  and  leakage,  the  noise  that  the  ship's  winches  make 
indicates  the  amount  of  energy  that  is  being  expended  in  making 
that  noise.  The  noiseless  operation  of  a  well  designed  and  con- 
structed electric  crane  indicates  by  its  silence  the  efficiency  of  the 
application  of  power  to  the  work. 

Electric  power  has  an  additional  advantage  over  steam  in  that 
the  current  is  consumed  only  when  the  crane  is  actually  in  operation, 
while  the  winches  on  a  ship  must  be  kept  under  steam  continuously 
during  their  use,  whether  they  are  in  actual  operation  or  not. 

When  the  ship  leaves  its  berth  it  takes  its  equipment  with  it, 
leaving  the  wharf  without  equipment.  With  a  crane,  barges,  lighters, 
and  other  harbor,  river,  and  inland  navigation  craft  may  be  served ; 
also  railroad  flat  and  gondola  cars  may  be  loaded  and  unloaded  by 
the  use  of  the  crane. 

The  amount  of  cable  or  rope  consumed  is  less  in  the  case  of  the 
crane.  A  short  steel  cable  is  used,  compared  with  the  many  feet  of 
rope  in  the  various  falls,  burtons,  etc.,  in  the  mast-and-winch  system. 

Cranes  will  undergo  many  changes  in  type  in  the  next  few  years. 
At  present  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  relative  advantage  depends  upon 
circumstances — roughly,  the  crane  for  a  quay  wharf  and  the  mast 
for  a  pier  wharf. 

USE  OF  SPECIALIZED  EQUIPMENT  2 

The  greater  part  of  the  overseas  freight  of  the  world  is  mis- 
cellaneous package  freight,  the  equipment  for  handling  which  differs 
but  little  from  that  used  years  ago.  But  there  are  other  classes  of 
freight  whose  character  is  such  as  to  make  it  readily  adaptable  to 
transfer  by  specialized  equipment  of  various  sorts.  These  classes 
are  (a)  standardized-package  freight,  (b)  free-flowing  bulk  freight. 

By  standardized-package  freight  is  meant  that  which  to  a  pre- 
dominant degree  is  shipped  in  a  standardized  package  in  cargo  lots 
or  very  large  shipments.  The  group  includes  bananas,  sugar,  sacked 
grain,  flour,  case  oil,  cotton,  coffee,  and  a  great  number  of  other 
products. 

A  large  part  of  this  standardized-package  freight  is  still  handled 
by  methods  already  described,  but  specialization  of  equipment  has 
followed  the  standardization  of  package  in  many  instances  where 
the  volume  of  freight  has  been  great.  In  some  cases  the  specializa- 
tion has  been  only  an  improvement  and  a  standardization  of  the  old 

2  From  Thomas  R.  Taylor,  Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes. 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS  167 

methods.  By  making  careful  study  of  a  particular  situation,  steve- 
dores have  been  able  to  work  out  the  most  advantageous  whips, 
power,  size  of  gang,  etc.  In  other  cases  a  new  system  of  transfer 
has  been  devised,  this  applying  specially  to  the  conveyors  used  for 
cotton,  coffee,  and  other  products  at  widely  separated  piers.  Since 
the  packages  are  of  uniform  size,  the  value  of  a  conveyor  of  limited 
size  and  power  is  readily  demonstrated.  Some  of  these  conveyors 
extend  from  the  deck  to  the  transit  shed;  others  have  legs  that  can 
be  placed  into  the  hold.  The  following  advantages  are  claimed  3 
for  these  conveyors  and  are  substantiated  in  individual  cases  at  least. 

1.  Speed  of  loading  is  increased  from  25  to  75  per  cent.  The 
speed  is  increased  because  there  are  no  points  of  congestion, 
as  at  the  place  of  the  deposit  of  the  fall;  because  the 
machine  is  tireless ;  and  because  the  conveyor  belt  can  be 
made  to  average  a  greater  speed  than  a  man. 

2.  Cost  of  loading  is  reduced  by  as  much  as  80  per  cent  in  some 
instances.     This  cost  reduction  is  largely  due  to  the  fewer 
number  of  longshoremen  required.    If  the  conveyor  extends 
from  the  hold  and  includes  a  tiering  section,  the  number 
of  men  employed  at  a  hatch  may  be  cut  to  one-fifth  of  the 
number  used  under  old-style  methods.     The  speed  of  dis- 
charge is  increased  at  the  same  time,  making  a  large  total 
in  expense  per  ton.     On  March  6,  1919,  2,103  barrels  of 
asphalt  were  unloaded  by  a  conveyor  system  at  Beaumont, 
Texas,  in  8^  hours  at  a  total  cost  of  $25.16. 

3.  Damage  to  cargo  is  eliminated  to  a  large  degree.    This  ap- 
plies to  sugar,  coffee,  flour,  etc.,  in  bags,  that  are  torn  by  the 
slings,  skids,  or  banging  against  obstructions  on  wharf  or 
ship.    With  certain  commodities  there  is  little  or  no  elimi- 
nation of  damage.    The  greatest  damage  to  sugar,  for  ex- 
ample, is  in  the  tearing  of  the  bags  by  the  longshoremen's 
hooks,  and  the  conveyor  will  not  remedy  this.     With  the 
commodities,  such  as  bananas,  that  are  bruised  in  slings 
and  therefore  must  be  handled  in  single  bunches  by  the 
expensive  human  chain,  the  labor  saving  is  very  great. 

It  would  seem  that  these  advantages  would  have  led  to  wider 
installation  of  such  machinery  even  for  loading  miscellaneous  freight. 
Some  difficulties  have  prevented  this.  The  conveyors  in  the  past 
have  not  been  readily  adaptable  to  varying  sizes  and  weights  of 
packages,  and  to  varying  level  of  the  vessel.  For  some  time  con- 
veyors could  not  be  economically  designed  to  lift  weights  at  an 

3  "The  Coming  Mechanical  Devices  That  Will  Make  Ship-loading 
Economical."  The  American,  Vol.  V  (1919),  7-15. 


i68  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

angle  greater  than  45  degrees  and  therefore  could  not  be  placed  in 
the  hold.  And  probably  the  greater  difficulty  to  be  met  has  been 
the  conservatism  of  the  shipping  trade,  which  looks  askance  at 
methods  that  have  been  accepted  by  manufacturing  plants  many 
years  ago.  All  these  difficulties  are  being  overcome  rapidly.  Modern 
conveyors  are  capable  of  carrying  the  average  overseas  package, 
which  is  less  than  500  pounds  in  weight,  and  of  raising  these  pack- 
ages at  almost  any  angle.  They  have  proved  their  practicability  at 
various  places  and  their  manufacturers  have  recently  gained  more 
publicity  through  the  Material  Handling  Machinery  Manufac- 
turers' Association,  so  that  it  is  to  be  expected  that  this  method  of 
handling  freight  will  be  more  widely  used  at  ocean  terminals  in  the 
near  future. 

Continuous-motion  or  Belt-conveyor  Transfer  Equipment. 
— The  horizontal  movement  by  belt  conveyor,  as  often  used  in 
certain  side-port  loading  and  discharging,  is  simple  and  needs  little 
discussion  here.  But  when  continuous-motion  systems  have  been 
attempted  for  deep  holds  of  ocean-going  vessels  with  a  long  "rise" 
or  vertical  movement  out  of  the  hold,  and  with  constant  changes  in 
the  length  of  the  lift  due  to  tides,  and  when  there  is  a  long  carry  to 
the  wharf  due  to  the  size  of  the  ship,  difficulties  have  been  encoun- 
tered. Obviously,  any  kind  of  conveyor  system  will  be  limited  in 
practice  to  certain  grades  of  package  freight,  particularly  those  of 
fairly  small  dimensions  and  weight,  excluding  large  and  irregularly 
shaped  crates  or  very  heavy  objects. 

The  Banana  Unloader. — The  banana  unloader  was  one  of  the 
first  vertical  conveyor  systems  devised  in  transfer  movement  for 
ocean-going  vessels.  A  description  of  this  useful  piece  of  spe- 
cialized equipment  is  quoted  from  Ports  and  Terminal  Facilities.4" 

The  method  of  handling  in  slings  did  not  work  well  for  bananas, 
as  the  fruit  was  bruised.  As  the  banana  trade  increased  in  impor- 
tance throughout  the  world  the  terminals  of  banana  steamers  at 
Hamburg,  New  Orleans,  and  elsewhere  were  fitted  with  a  specially 
devised  banana  unloader.  The  most  successful  type  and  the  one 
with  the  greatest  capacity  has  been  installed  by  the  Port  of  New 
Orleans,  the  Port  of  Galveston,  and  elsewhere.  The  equipment  is 
described  in  a  booklet  issued  by  Ford,  Bacon  and  Davis,  the  engi- 

4R.  S.  MacElwee,  Ports  and  Terminal  Facilities.  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Co.,  New  York,  1918. 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS 


169 


neers  designing  the  municipal  wharves,  warehouses  and  elevators 
at  New  Orleans,  La. 

Banana  importations  at  New  Orleans  exceed  those  at  any  other 
port,  amounting  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1914,  to  16,583,000 
bunches,  equivalent  to  an  average  of  320,000  bunches  per  week. 

The  handling  of  this  business  by  mechanical  devices  has  been 
developed  until  practically  all  of  the  bananas  are  now  unloaded 
by  machines. 

Canvas 
Cohered* 


FlG.    79. — BANANA    UNLOADER. 

The  design  of  this  machine  is  complicated  by  the  necessity  of 
providing  for  a  wide  range  of  water  level  and  ships  of  various 
dimensions.  The  machine  consists  of  a  steel  A-frame  structure 
traveling  lengthwise  of  the  wharf  on  two  rails  about  21  foot  centers, 
and  carrying  a  structural  steel  main  boom  50  feet  in  length,  stepped 
about  20  feet  above  the  dock  level. 

On  this  boom,  at  a  distance  of  about  30  feet  from  the  heel,  is 
stepped  an  auxiliary  boom  20  or  more  feet  in  length,  from  the  end  of 
which  is  swung  the  vertical  leg  of  the  conveyor.  These  two  booms 
afford  almost  any  desired  combination  of  vertical  and  horizontal 


iyo  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

adjustment,  while  at  the  same  time  the  main  boom  is  sufficiently 
short  to  clear  the  stays  and  wireless  rigging  of  the  ships. 

These  booms  and  the  framework  carry  the  conveyor  proper,  con- 
sisting of  two  endless  chains  spaced  about  five  feet  apart  and  run- 
ning over  pairs  of  sprockets  at  the  foot  and  head  of  the  conveyor 
frame,  at  the  pivot  points  of  the  auxiliary  and  main  booms  and  at 
additional  points  at  the  discharge  end  of  the  unloader. 

The  distance  between  chains  is  maintained  by  pipe  spreaders  and 
through  bolts  spaced  about  three  feet  centers,  attached  to  which  is  a 
four-foot  canvas  belt  with  sufficient  slack  between  each  pair  of 
spreaders  to  hold  a  bunch  of  bananas  when  the  chain  is  moving 
vertically. 

Upon  reaching  the  point  of  discharge  the  bunch  is  forced  out  of 
the  pocket  by  a  roller  behind  the  belt  and  drops  upon  a  short  hori- 
zontal conveyor  from  which  the  bunches  are  picked  up  by  hand, 
inspected,  sorted  and  loaded  into  cars,  or  disposed  of  locally. 

The  entire  machine  is  driven  through  gearing  and  clutches  by 
one  15-H.P.  motor.  The  capacity  of  each  machine  is  upward  of 
2,600  bunches  per  hour. 

Three  groups  of  these  unloaders,  consisting  of  10  units,  are 
owned  by  the  Dock  Board,  the  total  investment  being  about  $90,000. 
The  most  recent  installation  is  at  the  Pauline  Street  wharf  and 
consists  of  four  machines  costing  approximately  $37,500.  The 
section  of  the  wharf  on  which  they  operate  is  of  pile  and  timber 
construction  with  steel  shed,  about  360  feet  by  260  feet.  As  the  area 
is  covered  rain  does  not  interrupt  the  discharging  of  cargo.  The 
wharf  is  served  by  eight  transverse  spur  tracks  accommodating  five 
cars  each,  and  as  one  ship  may  carry  40,000  to  45,000  bunches  or 
about  120  carloads,  the  entire  track  capacity  may  be  filled  and 
moved  three  times  in  less  than  a  day's  time.  The  cost  to  the  Dock 
Board  of  this  wharf  with  its  shed  and  tracks  was  about  $1.40  per 
square  foot.  In  the  rear  of  the  wharf  the  Public  Railroad  has  yard 
capacity  for  200  additional  cars. 

The  Board  of  Commissioners  makes  a  charge  for  the  use  of  the 
banana  conveyors  of  one-fourth  cent  per  bunch,  which  considerably 
exceeds  the  cost  of  operation,  maintenance,  and  interest  charges. 

Vertical  Belt  Conveyors. — The  principle  involved  in  the  banana 
conveyor,  that  of  the  slack  belt  between  rigid  cross  pieces  and  the 
three-ply  leg  to  make  possible  accommodation  to  the  variable  depth 
of  ships  and  water  level,  is  suggestive  for  other  unloaders.  It  is 
perfectly  feasible  to  unload  coffee  or  sugar  bags  in  the  same  manner. 
In  fact,  any  regular  bag-shaped  or  bunch-shaped  articles  which  will 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS 


171 


not  injure  the  belting  could  be  handled  by  this  apron,  or  slack-belt 
system.    The  increase  in  the  speed  of  unloading  by  the  mere  feeding 


FlG.    80. — A  VERTICAL   BELT  CONVEYOR. 


of  single  bags  to  an  elevating  conveyor  is  very  marked.  The  great 
trouble  heretofore  has  been  that  conveyors  would  work  horizontally 
and  at  a  low  grade,  usually  not  exceeding  45  degrees,  but  could  not 
possibly  perform  a  vertical  lift  and  a  horizontal  transfer. 


172 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


The  Elevator  Conveyor. — When  the  above  paragraph  concerning 
vertical  belt  conveyors  was  written  the  writer  had  not  yet  seen  the 
type  of  conveyor  for  general  cargo  shown  in  Figure  8o.5  This  con- 
veyor is  an  application  of  the  slack-belt  principle  of  the  banana 
unloader.  Where  a  large  portion  of  the  cargo  is  made  up  of  compact 
boxes,  bags,  or  crates,  not  exceeding  300  to  500  pounds,  it  is  of 
considerable  advantage.  A  similar  system,  using  iron  baskets  instead 
of  a  slack  belt,  is  in  general  use  on  the  London  wharves  for  dis- 
charging frozen  mutton. 

In  connection  with  the  conveyor  it  should  be  noted  that  the 


FlG.  8l. — LOADING  SHIP  BY   MEANS   OF  A   VERTICAL   BELT   CONVEYOR   AND  GRAVITY 
ROLLER  CONVEYORS  TO  THE  WINGS. 

distribution  of  the  cargo  from  under  the  hatch  to  the  corners  of  the 
hold  where  it  is  stowed,  or  the  reverse,  is  made  by  light  gravity 
roller  conveyors.  This  expedites  the  stowage  of  the  cargo  and  makes 
unnecessary  the  time-consuming  trip  back  and  forth  between  the 
sling  in  the  hatch  opening  and  the  corners  of  the  hold  that  are  being 
stowed.  With  these  rollers  it  is  possible  to  chute  the  packages  to 
two,  three,  or  four  different  corners  in  the  hold  and  keep  several 
stowage  crews  busy  in  that  manner. 

5  By  courtesy  of  Rownson,  Drew  &  Clydesdale,  Inc.,  New  York,  London, 
and  Glasgow. 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS  173 

It  must  not  be  overlooked  in  all  devices  for  rapidly  loading 
vessels  that  the  speed  of  transfer  is  limited  by  the  ability  of  the 
hatch  gang  properly  to  stow  the  merchandise.  And  in  discharging 
it  is  limited  by  the  ability  of  the  hatch  gang  to  break  out  the  cargo 
and  swing  it  to  the  hatch  opening  and  make  it  into  a  sling  or  feed  it 
into  the  conveyor.  Again,  at  the  point  of  deposit  on  the  wharf,  in 
discharging,  the  same  question  of  taking  the  draft  away  quickly  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  rapid  transfer  movement. 

In  all  events,  the  stowage,  handling,  and  transfer  must  be  so 
synchronized  that  the  draft  is  never  allowed  to  hang.  In  the  case 
of  the  conveyor  the  parallel  of  allowing  the  draft  to  hang  is  having 
to  stop  the  conveyor  because  it  is  delivering  the  merchandise  too 
rapidly. 

All  conveyor  types  of  transfer  have  the  advantages  of  direct-line 
motion  over  the  arc  of  the  revolving  crane  boom,  in  addition  to  the 
advantage  of  continuous  motion,  rather  than  the  intermittent  motion 
of  the  hook  and  sling  system. 

With  the  large  hatch  opening  of  the  newer  type  of  cargo  vessels, 
two  falls  can  be  worked  at  one  time.  In  fact,  under  certain  condi- 
tions, four  falls  may  be  operated,  two  from  offshore,  and  two  from 
water  side. 

Free-flowing  Bulk  Freight. — Bulk  freight  consists  of  articles 
that  are  shipped  without  packaging  and  includes  brick,  ore,  coal, 
grain,  lumber,  oil,  etc.  Of  these  commodities  some,  such  as  brick 
and  lumber,  are  non-flowing  and  cannot  be  handled  essentially  dif- 
ferently from  miscellaneous  package  freight;  others,  such  as  oil, 
grain,  coal  and  ore,  are  free-flowing  and  are  adapted  to  trans- 
fer by  specialized  equipment.  Grain  is  poured  into  vessels  from 
hoppers  fed  by  conveyors.  Iron  ore  is  also  poured  in  the  holds  of 
its  carriers  and  is  unloaded  by  grab  buckets,  Huellet  unloaders,  or 
other  specialized  means.  Coal  cars  are  lifted  bodily  and  the  con- 
tents dumped  into  the  waiting  vessel.  Oil  is  pumped  in  and  out  of 
the  especially  designed  tankers.  Mechanical  conveyors  carry  phos- 
phate rock  in  Florida  from  the  storage  pile  to  the  hatch  coamings. 

Two  general  principles  are  applied  in  these  devices.  One  is  that 
it  is  cheaper  to  lift  mechanically  free-flowing  goods  to  a  point  from 
which  they  can  flow  into  the  carrier  than  it  is  to  transfer  them  hori- 
zontally. The  other  principle,  closely  associated  with  the  first,  is 
that  mechanical  hoisting  is  economical  with  goods  in  large  volume 


I74  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

and  of  a  nature  not  destructible  by  rough  handling.  These  two 
principles  are  so  well  tried  by  practice  that  they  are  generally 
accepted.  Their  application,  however,  differs  with  the  commodity 
and  with  other  conditions,  and  no  attempt  will  be  made  here  to 
describe  the  different  appliances  that  are  used.  Any  one  interested 
in  the  methods  may  find  excellent  descriptions  of  ore-carrying  on 
the  Great  Lakes,  of  the  coal-car  tippers  at  New  York  or  other 
points,  of  grain  elevators,  such  as  those  at  Girard  Point,  Philadel- 
phia, and  of  the  filling  and  emptying  of  the  tankers  at  any  oil 
exporting  or  importing  port. 

It  must  be  said  that  the  application  is  being  extended  to  cover 
the  transfer  of  some  commodities  that  are  put  up  in  packages.  Thus 
the  Arbuckle  Coffee  Company  at  New  York  uses  a  chute  delivery  to 
ship  for  its  coffee  sacks.  There  seems  to  be  no  adequate  reason  why 
the  gravity  and  even  the  grab-bucket  systems  should  not  be  used 
for  unbreakable  commodities  that  are  handled  in  large  volume.6 

Bunkering  or  Coaling  Ships. — One  of  the  various  important 
and  disagreeable  duties  that  a  ship  must  perform  in  port  and  also  at 
many  ports  of  call  is  that  of  taking  aboard  fuel.  A  great  advantage 
of  oil  fuel  is  the  speed  with  which  the  fuel  tanks  of  the  ship  may  be 
filled  by  fuel  lighters  that  come  alongside  and  simply  pump  the  fuel 
from  the  lighter  into  the  tank  of  the  ship.  Unfortunately,  the 
amount  of  fuel  oil  available  at  ports  is  so  limited  that  only  a  com- 
paratively small  proportion  of  ships,  at  the  present  time,  are  able  to 
use  this  convenient  fuel. 

Bunkering,  or  taking  aboard  fuel  coal,  must  be  distinguished 
sharply  from  loading  cargo  coal  into  a  vessel  that  is  to  carry  the 
coal  as  freight.  At  the  great  coal  ports,  such  as  Newport  News, 
Baltimore,  Cardiff,  Newcastle,  and  elsewhere,  from  which  coal  is 
shipped  as  a  commodity,  elaborate  specialized  machinery  has  been 
installed  for  loading.  Coal  piers  load  directly  into  colliers  for 
overseas  shipments  or  into  barges  for  distribution  along  the  water 
front.  In  recent  years  the  coaling  facilities  of  the  world  have  been 
so  overtaxed  that  ships  desiring  bunker  coal  alone  have  not  been 
permitted  to  go  to  these  coal  piers  for  bunkering. 

Also  a  cargo  or  passenger  vessel  will  find  it  uneconomical  to 
bunker  at  the  coal  piers.  Bunkering  may  be  carried  on  while  the 
vessel  is  at  her  berth  discharging  or  receiving  cargo,  without  losing 

'  T.  R.  Taylor,  Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes. 


TYPES  OF  CRANES  AND  DERRICKS 


175 


any  of  the  time  of  the  vessel.  The  ship  is  usually  "breasted  off" 
from  a  wharf  a  sufficient  distance  to  permit  coal  lighters  to  come 
between  the  vessel  and  the  wharf.  There  are  two  distinct  methods 
of  getting  the  coal  from  the  lighter  into  the  bunker.  The  first  is  by 
use  of  the  familiar  grab  bucket  carried  on  a  derrick  barge  of  some 
sort.  Except  where  very  large  ships  are  to  be  bunkered,  the  so-called 
gooseneck  boom  crane,  operating  a  grab  bucket  that  lifts  the  coal 
from  the  barges  and  drops  it  into  the  hoppers  that  lead  to  the  ship's 
bunkers,  is  the  more  flexible  and  less  expensive  method,  and  also  one 
that  saves  the  time  required  in  rigging  other  apparatus.  At  the 
various  anchorages  around  Hampton  Roads  this  floating  equipment 
is  to  be  seen. 

At  New  York,  where  very  large  lighters  bunker  liners  that 
consume  enormous  quantities  of  coal  on  each  trip,  there  have  been 
developed  two  systems  of  belt-conveyors ;  one  by  the » Michener 
Stowage  Company  and  the  other  by  the  De  Mayo  Company.  Both 
of  these  systems  are  built  on  the  principle  of  the  chain-bucket 
elevator.  They  are  rigged  to  the  side  of  the  vessel  with  spouts 
leading  to  the  bunker  ports.  The  rigging  of  this  equipment  takes 
considerable  time,  but  the  rapidity  of  movement  after  the  rig  is  once 
in  position  shows  a  great  gain  in  the  time  and  effort  necessary  to 
bunker  a  large  ship. 

COMPARISON  OF  COALING  METHODS 


Tons  of  coal  bunkered... 
Stevedores  and  operators. 
Avg.  tons  p.h.  per  ship.. 
Hours  coaling  .  ... 

3000 
950 
150 
20 

8000 
240 
200 
4O 

8000 

88 

400 

20 

8000 
96 
800 
10 

Avg.  time  per  1000  tons. 
Avg.  tons  per  laborer  p.h. 
Man  hours  labor  .  . 

6-2/3  hrs. 
•1.57 

IQ.OOO 

5  hrs. 

.833 
0,600 

2,y2  hrs. 

4-55 
1,760 

1%  hrs. 
8-33 

Q6O 

Mr.  H.  Michener,  Jr.,  president  of  the  Michener  Stowage  Com- 
pany, gives  the  above  table  of  figures,  showing  a  comparison  of 
coaling  vessels  at  various  ports.  Although  this  information  is  ex 
parte,  the  figures  are,  nevertheless,  interesting. 

REFERENCES 

ANNIN,  ROBERT  W.     Ocean  Shipping.    The  New  Century  Co.,  New 

York,  1920. 

The  General  Electric  Review,  April,  1921. 
The  G.  E.  Co.  Technical  Letter,  No.  350,  October,  1920. 


CHAPTER  X 

STOWAGE  AND  THE  STOWAGE  PLAN1 
DIFFICULTY  OF  STOWING 

The  stowage  of  cargo  may  be  said  to  begin  after  the  goods  have 
been  transferred  from  the  pier  to  the  hold,  although  the  term 
"stowage,"  properly  applied,  covers  the  operations  of  transfer,  as 
well  as  the  actual  packing  of  the  goods  in  the  hold.  To  a  man  who 
has  never  watched  the  loading  of  a  vessel,  stowing  seems  a  simple 
matter,  but  it  really  is  most  complicated  and  difficult.  The  problems 
encountered  in  trying  to  fix  the  maximum  amount  of  cargo  in  the 
least  space,  at  the  least  expenditure  of  time  and  money,  and  at  a 
maximum  amount  of  safety  to  the  goods  and  to  the  vessel,  are  not 
easily  solved.  This  is  particularly  true  with  a  mixed  cargo  that  is 
to  be  discharged  at  two  or  more  ports.  It  takes  a  very  capable  man 
to  plan  the  stowage  of  such  a  vessel. 

PLANNING  THE  STOWAGE 

Planning  by  the  Booking  Agent. — Planning  the  stowage  be- 
gins in  the  office  of  the  steamship  company.  The  billing  clerk,  in 
booking  the  cargo,  must  take  into  consideration  the  relation  of  dif- 
ferent shipments  to  each  other.  He  must  secure  a  cargo  that  is  well 
balanced  by  weight  and  volume,  by  size  or  measurement,  and  by 
character.  He  should  not  take  all  dead-weight  freight  that  will 
bring  the  vessel  to  its  marks  before  it  is  filled,  nor  should  he  fail  to 
provide  small  packages  to  use  as  broken  stowage,  nor  should  he 
accept  freight  that  is  of  a  character  dangerous  to  the  vessel,  crew,  or 
cargo.  A  new  man  may  make  many  mistakes  that  prove  very 
embarrassing  and  troublesome. 

Planning  by  the  Stevedore. — The  freight  that  is  accepted  is 
shown  on  the  "cargo  list,"  which  is  closed  as  soon  as  enough  cargo 

1  By  Thomas  R.  Taylor. 


STOWAGE  AND  THE  STOWAGE  PLAN  177 

has  been  secured.  A  copy  of  the  list  is  then  sent  to  the  pier 
superintendent  or  stevedore  in  order  that  he  may  know  what  freight 
to  expect  and  begin  the  preparation  of  a  stowage  plan.  The  problem 
of  the  billing  clerk  is  easy  as  compared  with  his,  for  he  has  the 
enormous  task  of  properly  arranging  the  cargo  in  the  vessel.  He 
must  consider  (i)  the  speed  and  cost  of  loading  and  unloading,  (2) 
the  proper  protection  of  the  vessel,  (3)  the  protection  of  the  cargo, 
and  (4)  the  stowage  of  the  maximum  amount  of  cargo.  These 
principles  are  relatively  easy  of  statement  but  their  expansion  in  this 
and  other  chapters  will  show  that  they  offer  many  problems  which 
are  made  more  difficult  by  the  fact  that  they  are  interrelated.  Long 
experience  in  the  business  is  the  only  method  of  training  a  practical 
stevedore,  for  it  is  experience  only  that  will  teach  him  the  relative 
merits  of  different  possibilities. 

With  these  principles  in  mind,  the  stevedore  sits  down  before  the 
cargo  list  and  mentally  places  the  freight  in  the  vessel.  He  knows 
the  peculiarities  of  that  particular  ship  and  is  familiar  with  the 
commodities  shown  on  the  list.  He  realizes  that  he  must  put  about 
one-third  of  the  dead  weight  in  the  between  decks  in  order  to  pre- 
vent excessive  rolling  of  the  vessel ;  that  he  must  place  more  weight 
aft  than  forward  because  this  ship  sails  better  if  it  has  a  "drag" ;  that 
he  cannot  load  this  heavy  machinery  in  No.  3  hold  because  the 
beams  at  that  hatch  are  weak ;  that  clothing  cannot  be  placed  on 
the  "skin"  because  it  may  be  damaged  by  the  water  from  the  leaky 
tank  top ;  and  that  the  barrels  must  go  in  No.  4  hold  for  the  reason 
that  they  are  already  stored  at  that  end  of  the  pier.  His  mind  is 
full  of  such  limitations  on  his  work,  and  it  is  only  after  he  has 
considered  all  possibilities  that  he  is  ready  to  draw  up  a  preliminary 
stowage  plan.  He  may  then  gather  his  foremen  together  to  tell 
them  what  he  plans  to  do,  and  they  may  offer  suggestions  that  will 
lead  to  alteration.  But  even  after  all  this  has  been  done,  there  is 
little  hope  that  the  stowing  will  proceed  as  planned,  for  delay  in 
receipt  of  some  shipments  may  upset  the  whole  scheme.  The 
machinery  that  was  to  go  on  the  skin  of  No.  5  hold  may  not  be 
delivered  so  early  as  the  canned  goods  that  were  to  be  placed  on  top 
of  the  machinery.  Such  occurrences  are  common,  so  the  preliminary 
stowage  plan  is  subject  to  constant  change. 

Upon  the  completion  of  the  preliminary  plan  and  the  arrival  of 


178  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

the  vessel,  stowing  may  commence.  The  hiring  of  the  men  and  the 
layout  of  the  transfer  equipment  have  already  been  described.  We 
are  now  primarily  interested  in  the  way  the  freight  is  placed  after  it 
is  put  in  the  hold  and  in  the  completion  of  the  stowage  plan. 

METHODS  OF  STOWING 

Preparation  of  the  Hold. — The  methods  used  in  stowing  the 
cargo  in  the  hold  varies  with  the  type  of  commodity  and  with  the 
article,  so  that  no  description  will  hold  good  for  all  kinds  of  freight. 
The  first  step  in  almost  any  case  is  the  proper  preparation  of  the 
hold  to  receive  the  cargo.  In  some  cases  preparation  may  consist  of 
nothing  more  than  the  removal  of  debris  left  from  the  previous 
voyage,  but  in  other  cases,  it  must  be  very  elaborate.  Before  stowing 
bulk  grain  it  is  necessary  to  construct  shifting  boards,  or  temporary 
bulkheads,  to  confine  the  grain  to  a  small  compartment  in  order  to 
prevent  excessive  shifting,  and  it  is  also  necessary  to  build  "feeders" 
in  the  'tween-deck  or  in  the  hatchway.  These  feeders  are  simply 
large  hoppers  into  which  grain  is  placed  and  from  which  it  can  feed 
into  the  lower  hold  as  the  cargo  there  settles  during  the  voyage.  If 
the  cargo  to  be  carried  is  especially  susceptible  to  water  damage  the 
beams  and  stanchions  must  be  muffled  with  cloth  or  matting  to  pre- 
vent the  drops  of  vapor  condensed  on  them  from  falling  on  the 
cargo.  In  some  instances  the  hold  must  be  thoroughly  scoured  and 
painted  to  remove  odors,  dirt,  and  vermin. 

Stowage  of  Bulk  Freight. — Bulk  cargo  is  ordinarily  fed  into 
the  hold  in  an  almost  continuous  stream.  As  long  as  it  continues 
to  fall  into  the  hold,  the  dust  and  the  danger  of  flying  pieces  prevent 
men  from  working  below,  but  as  soon  as  the  hatch  is  choked  or 
blocked  the  longshoremen  can  crawl  down  and  begin  the  task  of 
distributing  the  load.  If  the  cargo  consists  of  grain  the  longshore- 
men will  descend  at  the  first  opportunity  with  shovels  and  throw  the 
grain  towards  the  wings  as  fast  as  it  is  delivered  to  the  hatchway. 
Even  with  the  hatch  blocked  the  dust  is  so  thick  that  masks  must 
be  worn. 

If  the  bulk  cargo  is  light  relative  to  volume  the  stowage  must  be 
carefully  done  to  economize  space.  Grain  and  similar  commodities 
should  be  tramped  down  firmly  and  the  interbeam  space  must  be 


STOWAGE  AND  THE  STOWAGE  PLAN  179 

filled  by  strenuous  work  with  the  shovels.  Heavier  bulk  cargo 
requires  less  trimming,  for  stability  considerations  require  that  it 
be  heaped  toward  the  hatch  in  about  the  same  position  in  which  it 
naturally  falls. 

Stowage  of  Package  Freight. — Package  freight  of  all  kinds 
is  stowed  differently.  This  ordinarily  arrives  in  the  hold  in  slings. 
There  must  be  men  in  the  hold  to  release  the  draft  from  the  sling, 
attach  an  empty  sling  to  the  fall,  and  move  the  draft  to  its  place  of 
stowage.  If  the  vessel  is  large  and  the  hatch  small,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  move  the  freight  fifty  feet  or  more  and  then  to  elevate 
it  and  stow  it  carefully  in  the  proper  place.  These  operations  require 
the  labor  of  from  30  to  75  per  cent  of  the  total  force  working  on  the 
vessel,  and  the  hold  cost  probably  averages  about  40  per  cent  of  the 
total  cost  of  stevedoring.  On  account  of  the  short  distances  and  the 
care  that  must  be  exercised  in  placing  the  goods,  machinery  is  used 
but  very  little.  The  draft,  while  still  attached  to  the  fall,  is  swung 
and  dropped  as  near  as  possible  to  its  place  of  stowage.  From  this 
point  it  is  rolled,  pushed,  carried,  tossed  or  dragged  to  the  wings  or 
bulkhead.  The  longshore  hook,  with  which  every  longshoreman  is 
armed,  is  surprisingly  useful  in  this  work.  If  the  packages  are  small 
a  sliding  board  is  fitted  up,  upon  which  the  goods  may  be  slid  for  a 
distance  of  several  yards. 

Mechanical  Aids. — Planks  are  laid  down  in  many  cases,  espe- 
cially when  handling  barrels,  to  assist  the  movement.  Rollers  are 
placed  under  a  very  heavy  package,  and  if  the  longshoremen  cannot 
handle  it  even  then,  the  deck  winch  may  be  called  into  play  by  run- 
ning a  rope  from  it  to  a  pulley  in  the  wing  and  thence  to  the  weight 
to  be  moved.  If  the  packages  are  sacks  of  refined  sugar  or  some  other 
easily  handled  commodity,  it  is  frequently  the  practice  to  build  up 
a  "stool"  or  platform  at  the  hatchway,  to  which  the  longshoremen 
may  come  to  receive  the  packages  on  their  backs.  Thus,  mechanical 
aids  of  various  kinds  are  used,  but  stowing  is  primarily  a  matter  of 
hand  labor.  It  is  not  only  laborious  but  it  is  also  skilled  hand 
labor,  for  the  operation  does  not  consist  solely  of  moving  packages 
from  one  point  to  another.  The  skill  is  shown  in  placing  the  pack- 
ages quickly  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  occupy  the  least  possible 
space  and  will  receive  minimum  damage  during  the  voyage.  The 
longshoreman  who  can  stand  at  the  hatchway  and  throw  a  sack 
of  sugar  from  his  shoulders  or  hip  for  a  distance  of  six  feet  in  any 


i8o  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

direction  and  make  that  sack  fall  exactly  in  the  proper  place  with 
the  exact  amount  of  momentum  necessary  is  a  skilled  laborer.  Any 
one  who  has  watched  a  capable  barrel  man  at  work  can  appreciate 
his  skill.  He  rolls  the  barrel  easily  along  the  cant  line  of  the  tier  of 
barrels  below,  brings  it  up  sharply  at  the  proper  point,  spins  it  rapidly 
with  his  hook  to  bring  the  bung  to  such  a  position  that  it  will  be 
uppermost  when  the  barrel  is  placed,  turns  it  easily  and  quickly  so 
that  its  bilge  drops  exactly  into  the  cant  line  of  the  barrels  under- 
neath and  the  chimes  engage  exactly  with  the  chimes  of  the  barrel  in 
the  same  "longer,"  and  finally  places  a  piece  or  two  of  dunnage  at 
just  the  proper  points.  There  is  no  hesitation,  no  wasted  energy,  no 
smashing  of  barrels  against  each  other.  Every  movement  is  smooth 
and  graceful,  and  no  movement  is  wasted.  The  only  part  of  the 
operation  that  sometimes  delays  him  is  the  placing  of  the  dunnage, 
for  if  the  stability  of  the  barrels  does  not  satisfy  him  he  may  move 
several  of  them  at  great  effort  in  order  that  they  may  fit  snugly  and 
that  the  amount  of  dunnage  used  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  He 
does  his  work  with  such  apparent  ease  that  it  is  hard  to  realize  that 
he  is  stowing  several  times  the  number  of  barrels  stowed  by  the 
clumsy,  perspiring  beginner  in  the  same  hold. 

Dunnage. — In  stowing  almost  any  kind  of  cargo,  dunnage  and 
goods  for  broken  stowage  are  important  considerations.  "Dunnage" 
consists  of  material  used  to  protect  the  goods  against  any  possible 
source  of  damage.  Ordinarily  the  term  is  applied  only  to  cheap  cord- 
wood  used  to  hold  the  freight  away  from  the  sides,  the  "skin,"  or 
other  parts  of  the  ship,  and  to  separate  and  make  stable  individual 
packages ;  but  in  the  broader  sense  dunnage  includes  matting,  shingle, 
and  other  materials  used  for  these  purposes.  "Broken  stowage"  is  the 
space  lost  between  units  of  cargo.  It  varies  with  the  kind  of  freight 
from  about  2  per  cent  to  about  30  per  cent  of  the  total  cargo  space, 
the  average  perhaps  being  10  to  12  per  cent.  Most  of  the  spaces 
so  left  between  units  must  be  filled  either  with  dunnage  or  with 
small  packages  in  order  that  the  cargo  may  carry  safely.  If  small 
packages  are  used  more  freight  is  earned  and  the  cost  of  dunnage  is 
lowered,  so  that  the  booking  clerk  should  endeavor  to  secure  goods 
that  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  No  matter  whether  dunnage  or 
goods  for  broken  stowage  are  used,  they  should  be  delivered  to  the 
hold  at  the  proper  time,  even  though  this  may  mean  an  interruption 
in  the  transfer  operations.  If  the  longshoremen  do  not  have  them 


STOWAGE  AND  THE  STOWAGE  PLAN  181 

when  needed,  time  is  lost  later,  and  the  cargo  will  probably  be  in 
danger  of  chafe  and  shifting. 

Size  of  Hold  Gangs. — The  number  and  distribution  of  men  in 
the  hold  gang  will  vary  with  many  factors,  but  principally  with  the 
type  of  commodity  handled  and  with  the  amount  of  working  space. 
The  numbers  will  be  largest  in  "flooring  off"  a  large  hold,  and 
smallest  in  "rounding  off"  or  "finishing"  a  small  hold.  If  the  move- 
ment from  hatchway  to  wing  is  different  a  great  many  men  must  be 
used,  and  the  same  is  true  if  the  placing  of  the  goods  require  much 
time,  as  in  dunnaging  fragile  goods  or  in  screwing  cotton.  In  some 
cases  the  hold  gang  acts  as  a  unit,  as  when  bananas  are  passed  from 
hand  to  hand;  but  more  often  the  gang  is  subdivided  into  units  of 
two  or  three  men  each.  One  or  two  men  will  stand  in  the  square  of 
the  hatch  to  swing  the  draft  in  the  proper  direction  and  to  release  the 
sling.  There  may  be  ten  other  men  in  the  hold  working  in  pairs. 
Each  pair  receives  a  draft  in  turn,  moves  it  to  its  proper  place,  and 
stows  it  securely.  As  the  hold  is  gradually  filled,  the  distances  be- 
come less  and  the  working  space  more  cramped,  so  that  some  of  the 
men  are  released  or  are  sent  to  another  hold.  Because  of  this  con- 
tinual change  in  working  conditions  and  because  of  the  inevitable 
interruptions  in  transferring  the  goods  to  the  hold,  it  is  very  difficult 
for  the  foreman  in  charge  of  the  stowage  to  keep  the  hold  gang 
at  top  efficiency. 

It  is  not  customary  to  carry  on  the  stowage  of  the  hold  and  the 
between  decks  simultaneously,  although  this  may  be  done.  Ordi- 
narily the  hold  is  filled  first  and  then  the  between-deck  hatch  cover  is 
put  on  and  used  as  a  new  landing  stage.  However,  if  the  hold  cargo 
cannot  be  stowed  as  fast  as  delivery  can  be  made,  alternate  drafts 
may  be  stopped  at  the  level  of  the  between  deck  and  pulled  in  by 
means  of  a  hook  and  rope. 

As  the  stowing  proceeds,  the  stevedore,  through  his  foremen, 
imust  keep  in  constant  touch  with  the  situation.  It  may  be  that  the 
goods  occupy  more  space  than  was  allowed  for  in  the  calculations,  or 
that  the  space  designed  for  certain  freight  must  be  used  for  other 
goods  because  of  delayed  delivery.  The  men  may  be  withdrawn 
from  the  hold  before  the  completion  of  stowing  there  in  order  to  load 
other  goods  in  the  between  decks,  or  they  may  be  temporarily  released 
pending  the  receipt  of  more  freight.  The  whole  process  is  subject  to 
constant  change,  and  it  is  only  after  many  difficulties  have  been 


182  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

surmounted  that  the  holds  are  rounded  off  and  the  hatch  covers 
placed. 

Drawing  Up  the  Stowage  Plan.— The  tally  clerks  have  kept 
a  record  of  each  article  transferred  and  the  foremen  know  where  the 
articles  are  placed.  It  is  therefore  an  easy  matter  for  the  stevedore 
or  his  clerk  to  draw  up  a  stowage  plan.  A  stowage  blank  shows  an 
outline  of  a  ship  and  upon  this  the  clerk  first  draws  lines  to  repre- 
sent decks  and  bulkheads.  With  the  space  thus  subdivided  and  with 
the  information  given  by  the  tally  clerks  and  the  foremen,  he  can 
show  on  the  plan  the  exact  place  of  stowage  of  each  shipment. 

Discussion  of  Sample  Stowage  Plans — Saluda. — Figure  26 
shows  the  stowage  plan  of  the  Saluda  on  a  voyage  from  Phila- 
delphia to  Liverpool.  This  is  a  form  that  is  used  for  all  vessels 
belonging  to  the  United  States  Shipping  Board,  and  it  gives 'more 
information  than  is  contained  on  the  stowage  plans  used  by  most 
operators.  The  interesting  facts  in  connection  with  this  plan  are 
given  under  the  heading  "Remarks."  It  will  be  noted  that  there  is  no 
free  space  in  the  steamer,  despite  the  fact  that  the  total  dead  weight 
on  board  is  only  7,312  tons  and  the  cargo  measures  only  342,865 
cubic  feet,  whereas  the  vessel  is  supposed  to  carry  7,500  dead- 
weight tons  and  has  a  bale  capacity  2  of  373,200  cubic  feet.  The 
difference  between  the  measurement  of  the  cargo  and  the  capacity  of 
the  vessel  is  the  amount  of  space  that  is  lost.  On  this  cargo,  there- 
fore, the  "broken  stowage"  was  30,365  cubic  feet  or  less  than  9  per 
cent  of  the  total  measurement  of  the  cargo.  This  percentage  should 
be  increased  somewhat,  however,  because  part  of  the  cargo  has  been 
placed  on  deck,  and  deck  space  is  not  included  in  the  statement  of  the 
bale  capacity. 

Selected  2^ooo-Ton  Steamer. — Figure  82  is  the  stowage  plan 
of  a  combination  freight  and  passenger  vessel  of  23,000  dead-height 
tons.  Sections  have  been  drawn  also  in  order  to  show  the  way  in 
which  the  cargo  is  stowed. 

Note  the  method  of  stowing  barrels.  Their  lengths  are  fore-and- 
aft  because  they  are  placed  more  easily  and  carry  better  in  this  posi- 
tion. A  row  of  barrels  fore-and-aft  is  called  a  "longer."  The  bilges 
of  the  upper  tier  of  barrels  fit  into  the  cant  lines  of  the  lower  tier  at 
the  quarters.  This  economizes  space  and  gives  stability.  The  bungs 

2  Bale  capacity  is  less  than  grain  capacity  because  the  grain  fills  in  places 
that  would  be  lost  as  "broken  stowage"  in  stowing  bales  or  boxes, 


183 


184  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

of  the  barrels  are  up  so  as  to  prevent  leakage.  Dunnage  is  placed 
in  spaces  too  small  for  barrels.  The  bilges  of  the  lower  tier  of 
barrels  are  raised  off  the  floor  by  placing  "beds"  (small  sticks  of 
wood)  under  the  quarters.  This  puts  the  weight  upon  the  quarters, 
which  are  the  strongest  parts  of  the  barrels.  The  numbers  of  tiers 
allowed  will  depend  upon  the  strength  of  the  barrels  and  the  nature 
of  their  contents,  but  in  any  case  it  should  not  exceed  eight.  This 
method  of  stowing  is  spoken  of  as  "bilge  and  cant  line ;  bungs  up  and 
bilge  free." 

Sections  of  tanks  No.  4  and  No.  9  show  the  method  of  placing 
shifting  boards  in  bulk  wheat.  The  "boards"  are  really  fore-and-aft 
partitions  held  in  place  by  shores  or  guy  ropes.  Many  small  holds  are 
fitted  with  only  one  shifting  board,  dividing  the  space  into  two  equal 
parts,  but  large  holds,  such  as  these  are  divided  ii\to  four  or  six  sec- 
tions. The  shifting  of  the  grain  is  thus  confined  to  a  small  area  and 
does  not  cause  instability  of  the  vessel. 

Note  the  manner  of  placing  tubs  of  butter.  Space  would  be 
economized  by  stowing  every  other  tub  upon  its  head,  but  this 
would  cause  leakage  and  cannot  be  done. 

The  extensive  use  of  lumber  to  separate  different  commodities 
and  to  form  a  new  floor  is  characteristic.  Lumber  is  placed  on  the 
wheat  to  make  a  base  for  the  butter,  and  it  separates  cotton  from 
butter  in  No.  9  tank  and  cotton  from  tobacco  in  No.  4.  In  almost 
all  cases  it  is  advisable  to  secure  lumber  as  part  of  the  cargo,  for  it 
will  avoid  the  extensive  use  of  dunnage,  on  which  freight  is  not  paid. 
Articles  which  can  be  used  as  dunnage  or  for  filling  broken  stowage 
are  frequently  accepted  at  a  lower  freight  rate. 

It  is  easily  seen  that  the  stowage  of  a  vessel  with  such  a  large 
number  of  decks  and  bulkheads  is  difficult  from  the  mechanical  point 
of  view,  but  the  separation  of  commodities  is  facilitated.  A  vessel 
with  no  between  decks  and  only  a  few  holds  can  be  filled  rapidly  by 
the  transfer  equipment,  but  the  goods  do  not  carry  well  because 
they  are  jumbled  together. 

Portsmouth. — Figure  83  shows  the  stowage  plan  of  the  Ports- 
mouth sailing  from  Philadelphia  to  Montevideo,  La  Plata,  and 
Buenos  Aires.  When  cargo  is  to  be  discharged  at  two  or  more  ports, 
the  stowage  becomes  more  difficult,  for  one  more  problem  is  added. 
The  cargo  destined  for  the  first  port  should  be  accessible  without 
disturbing  cargo  for  the  other  ports.  Moreover,  the  vessel  must  be 


i 


.§: 


^     1 


3" 


3B&I 


iMH'l!1 


S  > 

N 

t 


dlttf*? 

-'^^•*rt  "** 


135 


!86  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

seaworthy  after  the  removal  of  cargo  at  the  first  port.  In  addition, 
the  distribution  of  goods  in  the  different  holds  must  be  such  that  dis- 
charge is  facilitated.  All  of  the  cargo  for  Montevideo  cannot  be 
placed  in  one  hold,  because  it  would  take  a  long  time  to  discharge  it 
through  one  hatch  and  because  the  vessel  would  probably  be  unsea- 
worthy  after  the  discharge.  For  these  reasons,  the  consignments  for 
Montevideo  are  placed  in  holds  l,  2,  and  3,  and  those  for  La  Plata 
in  holds  l,  2,  and  4.  At  each  port,  therefore,  discharge  can  be  con- 
ducted through  three  hatches  at  the  same  time.  In  no  case  is  it 
necessary  to  move  La  Plata  cargo  in  order  to  get  at  Montevideo 
cargo,  or  to  move  Buenos  Aires  cargo  to  reach  La  Plata  cargo. 
Cargo  for  the  first  two  ports  is  so  evenly  divided  between  the  holds 
that  the  vessel  continues  to  be  seaworthy  on  the  different  "legs"  of 
its  voyage. 

On  this  stowage  plan,  as  well  as  on  the  others  considered,  the  use 
of  lumber  in  flooring  off  and  in  separating  consignments  is  noticeable. 

As  will  be  shown  in  Chapter  XI  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  large 
part  of  the  weight  of  the  cargo  low  in  the  vessel  in  order  to  insure 
stability,  but  too  little  weight  near  the  top  causes  the  vessel  to  roll 
heavily.  Therefore,  some  of  the  dead-weight  cargo  should  be  placed 
high  in  the  hold  or  in  the  'tween  decks.  This  principle  has  been 
followed  on  the  Portsmouth  by  putting  steel  and  other  heavy  mate- 
rials in  the  'tween  decks. 


CHAPTER  XI 

STOWAGE  AND   STOWAGE  FACTORS1 

Desirability  of  Getting  Full  Cargo  Paying  High  Rates. — 

The  larger  the  cargo  carried,  the  higher  will  be  the  earnings  of  the 
voyage.  The  overhead  cost  of  the  vessel  goes  on  continuously ;  earn- 
ings are  made  only  according  to  the  amount  of  freight,  passengers, 
and  mail  carried.  The  freight  agent  therefore  tries  to  secure  a  full 
cargo  paying  the  highest  freight  rates.  Two  questions  immediately 
arise  from  this  statement:  What  is  a  full  cargo?  What  freight 
pays  the  highest  rates  ? 

Commodities  Paying  High  Rates. — The  complete  answer  to 
the  second  question  is  considered  in  another  volume  of  this  series.  It 
is  sufficient  to  point  out  here  that  ocean  freight  rates  are  determined 
by  many  factors,  such  as  competitive  conditions,  cost  of  service,  value 
of  service,  value  of  the  commodity,  and  nature  of  the  commodity. 
The  factor  that  is  of  particular  interest  here  is  the  nature  of  the 
commodity.  A  dangerous  article  will  ordinarily  be  charged  a  higher 
rate  than  one  which  is  perfectly  safe,  and,  in  the  long  run,  articles 
that  do  not  fit  the  requirements  of  the  vessel  must  pay  more  than 
those  which  do.  This  presents  a  question  as  to  what  sort  of  com- 
modity does  fulfill  the  requirements  of  the  vessel,  and  the  answer  to 
that  also  shows  us  what  a  full  cargo  is. 

Getting  a  Full  Cargo. — The  ideal  commodity  is  one  that  fills 
all  the  cargo  space  and  lowers  the  vessel  to  its  "marks."  The  amount 
of  cargo  space  is  measured  according  to  well-defined  rules  and  is 
expressed  in  cubic  feet.  Two  capacities  at  least  are  given  for  each 
vessel — the  bale  capacity  and  the  grain  capacity.  In  measuring  the 
grain  capacity  no  deductions  are  made  for  loss  of  space  around  small 
obstructions,  for  it  is  assumed  that  the  grain  will  flow  into  all  corners 
and  completely  fill  the  holds.  Bales  and  boxes,  however,  will  not 
fit  snugly  into  all  parts  of  the  hold,  and  deductions  must  therefore 
be  made.  A  vessel  of  7,000  tons  dead  weight  may  have  a  grain 
capacity  of  370,000  cubic  feet  and  a  bale  capacity  of  340,000  cubic 
feet. 

1  By  Thomas  R.  Taylor. 

187 


188  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

The  owner  of  this  vessel  would  endeavor  to  secure  a  grain  cargo 
measuring  370,000  cubic  feet  or  a  general  cargo  measuring  340,000 
cubic  feet.  He  cannot  take  a  greater  amount  without  placing  some  of 
it  on  deck,  and  he  does  not  want  to  take  a  smaller  amount,  for  space 
would  then  be  left  empty.  Empty  space  means  lost  revenue,  and  it 
also  means  danger.  If  the  holds  are  not  completely  filled  there  is 
a  possibility  that  the  cargo  will  shift  and  toss  about,  and  this  shift- 
ing damages  the  goods  and  may  lead  to  loss  of  the  ship. 

But  the  owner  must  also  consider  the  weight  of  the  cargo,  for  he 
is  anxious  that  the  freight  taken  be  heavy  enough  to  lower  the 
vessel  to  its  "deep-load  line."  The  laws  of  most  countries  require 
that  each  vessel  be  marked  on  its  sides  with  circles  and  lines  to  repre- 
sent the  maximum  draft  of  the  ship  at  different  seasons  of  the  year 
and  on  different  routes.  No  cargo  shall  be  put  on  after  the  vessel  has 
been  lowered  to  its  marks.  This  requirement  is  made  because  it  has 
been  found  that  many  owners  will,  if  left  to  their  own  initiative, 
place  their  vessels  in  an  unseaworthy  condition  by  overloading.  The 
draft  thus  marked  represents  not  only  the  maximum,  but  also  the 
most  economical  loading,  for  the  vessel  is  carrying  the  maximum 
amount  of  weight  and  also  sails  better  than  if  it  were  standing  high 
in  the  water.  It  is  therefore  to  the  interest  of  the  shipowner  to  find  a 
cargo  that  will  lower  this  vessel  to  its  marks.  In  the  case  of  the  vessel 
of  7,000  dead-weight  tons  the  total  weight  put  on  board  should  be 
7,000  tons.  All  of  this  weight,  however,  is  not  cargo,  for  fuel,  stores, 
dunnage,  etc.,  are  included.  If  all  items  other  than  cargo  weigh 
1,000  tons,  the  weight  of  the  cargo  should  be  6,000  tons. 

Explanation  of  Stowage  Factor. — Therefore,  the  problem  of  the 
owner  of  this  vessel  is  to  find  a  general  cargo  that  will  weigh  6,000 
tons  and  measure  340,000  cubic  feet.  This  means  that  each  ton  must 
measure  approximately  57  cubic  feet.  This  figure,  expressing  the 
measurement  of  a  long  ton  (2,240  pounds)  of  a  commodity,  is  called 
the  "stowage  factor"  of  the  commodity.  Stowage  factors  vary  from 
about  9  for  pig  lead  to  over  1,000  for  unnested  wicker  baskets.  Those 
commodities  having  a  stowage  factor  less  than  40  are  termed  "dead- 
weight cargo,"  and  those  with  stowage  factors  of  40  or  more  are 
called  "measurement  freight."  This  distinction  has  arisen  because 
the  shipowner  has  found  it  desirable  to  charge  by  space  if  the  com- 
modity stows  at  more  than  40  and  by  weight  if  it  stows  at  less  than 
40.  Many  rates  contain  the  provision  that  the  charge  will  be  made 


STOWAGE  AND  STOWAGE  FACTORS 

STOWAGE  FACTORS  FOR  SHIP  CARGOES 


i89 


Commodity 

Type  of 
packing 

Gross 
weight 
(pounds) 

Measure- 
ment, in 
cu.  ft.  anc 
twelfths 
of  cu.  ft. 

Stow- 
age — 
Number 
of  cu.  ft. 
occupied 
by  long 
ton 

Remarks 

Case  

178 

8-Q 

For   optical 

Barrel 

2-18 

8-  1  1 

83 

use;  carborun- 
dum    stone 
and     drilling 
diamond.    See 
also     Carbo- 
rundum,   Em- 
ery,       Grind- 
stones,   etc. 

Acetone     

Acid: 

Drum  
Barrel.  .  .  . 

845 
475 

24-3 

I2-O 

70 
60 

no  gallons 

Barrel  
Barrel.  .    . 

500 
350 

13-8 

IO-O 

60 

Carbolic     

Barrel  
Barrel.  .  .  . 

275 
500 

8-0 

I2-O 

65 
60 

Case  

237 

I,  IOO 

8-0 

65 

Carbolic  crystals    

Case  

84 
315 

2-8 

7i 

Hydrochloric    

Barrel.  .  .  . 

344 

I  I-I  I 

Carboy  
Carboy.  .  .  . 

190 
235 

6-0 
8-0 

80 
83 

See   Acid,   Hy- 

Nitric      

Barrel.  .  .  . 

213 

9-0 

94 

drochloric 

Oxalic    

Carboy..  .  . 
Carboy  
Barrel.  .  .  . 

190 

2IO 

254 

8-0 
6-0 
7-0 

94 
70 
67 

Barrel  
Barrel  
Barrel  
Demijohn. 

375 
401 
374 
1  20 

10-3 
10-6 
10-6 
6-0 

67 
63 
67 

I  12 

5  gallons 

Barrel.  .  .  . 

1  20 

7-8 

157 

Barrel  
Barrel  
Bag  

120 
119 
223 

P 

5-O 

ISO 

1  44 

5° 

Bag  

2O2 

4-8 

Carboy.  .  .  . 

229 

8-0 

59 

Carboy.    .  . 
Drum  

250 
I,62O 

6-0 

22-O 

55 
33 

Tartaric                    .  .  . 

Drum  
Barrel.  .  .  . 

QOO 

260 

n-7 

7-O 

11 

55  gallons 

Advertising  matter  

Barrel  
Bale  
Case 

250 
1  06 

7-2 
3-0 

64 

6| 
Co 

Import 

Case     

224 

8-0 

80 

6« 

Case  

72 

2-O 

62 

Aeroplane  parts   

Case  
Case  

351 

280 

5-o 
3-0 

32 
24 

A  "       1                    11           r\         t 

Case     .    .  . 

759 

61-6 

182 

Agar-agar    

Bale  
Bale  

230 
284 

7-3 
9-8 

11 

Import 

Agricultural  implements   .... 

Box  
Box  

520 
685 

9-0 
1  1-5 

38 

37 

Box 

433 

8-s 

68 

Box  

402 

5-6 

3  * 

Crate  
Package.  .  . 

236 
301 

9-n 

I  1-2 

94 
83 

NOTE.— Measurements  are  given  in  conformity  with  shipping  practice,  in  cubic  feet 
and  twelfths  of  a  cubic  foot.  Thus,  "8-9"  signifies  eight  and  nine-twelfths  cubic  feet. 

Stowage  represents  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  cargo  space  in  which  a  long  ton 
(2,240  pounds)  may  be  shipped.  Thus,  no  cubic  feet  is  the  cargo  space  required 
for  a  ton  of  abrasives  packed  in  cases  averaging  178  pounds  gross  and  measuring  8-9 
cubic  feet. 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

STOWAGE  FACTORS  FOR  SHIP  CARGOES — Continued 


Commodity 

Type  of 
packing 

Gross 
weight 
(pounds) 

Measure- 
ment, in 
cu.   ft.  anc 
twelfths 
of  cu.  ft. 

Stow- 
age- 
Number 
of  cu.  ft. 
occupied 
by  long 
ton 

Remarks 

See  Machinery 
See  Machinery 
See  Machinery 

Import 

Import.       T  i  n 
container  in  a 
wooden   case 

Bottled 
Bottled 
1  1  dozen  pints 
Bulk 

Shelled 
Shelled 

Two     5  -  gallon 
oil    cans    in 
wooden      case 
covered     with 
gunny   cloth 
Import 

Lump 
Powdered 
Powdered 

See   Ore,   Alu- 
minium 
Lump 
Powdered 
Powdered 
Powdere3 
Powdered 

Cooking     uten- 
sils 

Standard 
Large 
Small 
no  gallons 

Alabastine    
Albumen: 
Blood    

KP-O-                                                 

Case  

Case  
Case  

I  12 

263 
250 
249 
251 
244 

2-0 

8-0 
5-8 

& 

5-i  i 

36 

67 
51 

57 
54 
54 

60 

78 
62 
61 
7i 
64 
59 
60 
56 
54 
45 

21 
96 

68 
65 
93 
1  08 
32 
33 

35 

P 

61 

52 

54 

55 

40 
45 
40 

Case 

Case  

Case  
Cask  

Alcohol  : 

Barrel  

336 
848 
400 
380 
850 
1  60 
180 
140 

11-8 
23-4 

10-0 
12-0 

24-4 
4-3 
4-9 

3-6 

Methyl                      

Wood     

Barrel  
Barrel  
Drum..  .  . 
Case  

Ale       

Alkali     

Case  
Case  

Cask 

Barrel..  . 
Drum  

325 
823 
140 

6-6 
8-0 
6-0 

Aloes    

Bag 

Bag  

223 
no 

i3i 
135 

127 
118 

220 

375 
426 
425 
1,300 

275 
350 
130 

9-3 

5-4 
i-n 

2-O 

2-0 
1-9 
8-9 
10-3 

IO-0 

10-3 
28-6 

5-0 
7-0 
2-4 

Bag 

cafe:::::: 

Case 

Case  
Case  

Bag  

Alum   earth    

Aluminium: 

Barrel  
Barrel  
Barrel  
Cask  

Barrel  
Box  

Ore    

Sulphate 

Barrel  
Barrel.  .  .  . 
Barrel  
Barrel  
Barrel.  .. 
Box  

375 
425 
426 
320 

425 
227 
45 
251 

I2O 

10-3 
10-3 

IO-0 

6-9 

IO-O 

9-3 

26-8 
10-3 

65 
54 
52 
47 
52 
9i 
282 
256 

191 
50 

41 
42 
45 
42 
56 

If 

Ware   

Box  
Box  

Box  

Ammonia: 

Cylinder..  . 
Cylinder..  . 
Cylinder..  . 
Cylinder..  . 
Drum  
Drum  
Barrel  

268 
287 

393 
197 
970 
943 
611 

5-o 
5-o 
7-3 

2-IO 

24-3 
23-4 
18-0 

Aqua  

Dry    

STOWAGE  AND  STOWAGE  FACTORS  191 

on  the  weight  or  measurement  basis  "at  ship's  option."  The  dividing 
line  was  established  at  40  apparently  because  the  older  type  of  vessel 
would  be  filled  without  being  lowered  to  its  marks  by  freight  that 
stowed  at  more  than  40. 

The  Average  Stowage  Factor. — The  vessel  that  we  have  been 
considering  would  pay  best  and  sail  easiest  if  it  carried  freight  with 
a  stowage  factor  of  about  57.  But  vessels  differ  widely  in  their 
cargo-carrying  capacity.  Some  are  filled  and  lowered  by  cargo 
stowing  at  40 ;  others  by  cargo  stowing  at  90  or  more.  It  is  difficult 
to  say  what  the  average  would  be.  Perhaps  the  ordinary  cargo 
steamer  should  take  freight  stowing  at  from  52  to  55,  and  the  aver- 
age sailing  vessel  freight  that  stows  at  from  65  to  70.  The  sailing 
vessel  has  greater  cubic  capacity  because  of  its  construction  and 
because  no  space  is  taken  up  by  boilers  and  machinery. 

Selecting  Cargo  by  Lists  of  Stowage  Factors. — The  stowage 
factors  of  most  commodities  are  known  to  the  booking  agent  or  he 
can  easily  find  the  factor  of  a  given  article  by  consulting  some  list 
of  factors.  Almost  all  steamship  companies  have  their  own  lists, 
but  the  most  complete  and  satisfactory  one  is  that  originally  pub- 
lished by  the  War  Trade  Board.  An  extract  from  this  is  shown  on 
pages  189  and  190  in  order  to  illustrate  the  proper  make-up  of 
such  a  list.  Knowing  the  stowage  factors  of  different  commodities 
and  the  capacity  and  dead-weight  tonnage  of  his  vessel,  the  agent  can 
easily  determine  what  sort  of  cargo  will  best  suit  his  needs.  But  his 
problem  is  complicated  by  other  considerations,  unless  he  has  the 
choice  of  bulk  cargoes  of  different  character.  He  may  not  have  a 
choice  at  all,  or  he  may  have  to  accept  commodities  that  vary  greatly 
in  their  stowage  factors.  If  he  rfas  no  choice,  he  will  in  most  cases, 
of  course,  take  whatever  is  offered  rather  than  allow  the  vessel  to 
sail  empty.  If  he  is  offered  part  cargoes  of  several  different  com- 
modities, as  would  be  the  case  if  he  were  securing  freight  for  a 
liner  or  for  many  tramps,  he  would  try  to  accept  a  combination  that 
would  provide  the  necessary  weight  and  volume.  The  problem  of 
combining  two  commodities  is  relatively  easy,  and  can  be  worked  out 
by  using  the  formula  given  on  page  192.* 

3  Formula  applies  only  in  cases  where  the  stowage  factor  of  the  lighter 
commodity  is  greater  than  the  stowage  factor  of  the  vessel:  that  is,  when 

V 
b  is  greater  than    — 


192 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


b-a 
in  which 

X  =  number  of  tons  taken  of  the  commodity  having  the  higher 

stowage  factor. 

V  =  bale  capacity  in  cubic  feet. 

T  =  total  number  of  tons  of  cargo  that  can  be  carried  =  dead- 
weight tonnage  of  vessel  less  tonnage  of  fuel,  stores,  etc. 
a  —  the  lower  of  the  two  stowage  factors. 
b  •=.  the  higher  of  the  two  stowage  factors. 

If  we  use  again  the  illustration  of  the  vessel  with  a  bale  capacity 
of  340,000  cubic  feet  and  a  dead-weight  tonnage  of  7,000,  of  which 
6,OOO  tons  can  be  made  up  of  cargo,  and  if  we  assume  that  the  agent 
is  offered  steel  billets  stowing  at  10  cubic  feet  and  cotton  stowing  at 
90  cubic  feet,  the  problem  would  be  worked  out  as  follows : 


/340,ooo  _\ 
V  6,000  /  6, 


90-10 


6,000  __  (56.7-10)  6,000 
80 


—  3,500  tons,  approximately  number  of  tons  of  cotton 
that  should  be  accepted. 

The  number  of  tons  of  steel  would  then  be  6,000  —  3,500,  or  2,500. 

To  prove  that  this  cargo  would  provide  the  proper  volume  it  is 

only  necessary  to  multiply  the  number  of  tons  of  the  two  commodi- 

ties by  their  respective  stowage  factors  and  add  the  results,  as  follows  : 

Volume  of  cotton    =  3,500  x  90  =  315,000  cubic  feet 
Volume  of  steel      =  2^500  x  10  =    25,000  cubic  feet 

Total  volume  of  cargo  =  340,000  cubic  feet 

If  there  are  a  number  of  commodities  instead  of  only  two  the 
problem  becomes  more  difficult,  and  is  worked  out  empirically.  As- 
sume that  the  "cargo  list"  of  the  freight  accepted  for  the  7,000-ton 
vessel  shows  the  articles  in  the  table  on  the  opposite  page. 

The  booking  clerk,  upon  reaching  this  point,  knows  that  he  should 
now  secure  3,500  tons  with  a  measurement  of  90,000  cubic  feet.  The 
automobiles  have  taken  up  so  much  room  that,  to  balance  the  cargo, 
dead-weight  stowing  at  about  25  must  be  obtained  if  possible.  He 
therefore  tries  to  book  rails,  steel  plates,  or  other  heavy  materials, 


STOWAGE  AND  STOWAGE  FACTORS 


193 


Articles 

Weight  in 
tons 

Measurement 
in  cubic  feet 

I  OOO 

90,000 

SOO  tons  steel  billets  

«oo 

S.ooo 

i  ,000  cases  patent  leather    

IQO 

19,000 

i  ,000  cases  gloves  

80 

16,000 

2,ooo  cases  dried  fruit  

I  IO 

$  CQO 

300  crates  automobiles  

620 

115  ,000 

2,500 

250,500 

and  he  may  offer  a  reduction  in  freight  rates  in  order  to  get  such 
freight.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  quote  "berth-cargo"  rates  on  com- 
modities that  are  usually  available  and  can  be  used  to  round  off  a 
cargo  satisfactorily,  the  berth-cargo  rate  being  lower  than  the  ordi- 
nary rate.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  agent  can  secure  the  desired 
freight  at  the  full  rate.  There  may  be  a  large  supply  of  steel  in 
port  waiting  for  transportation  over  the  route  taken  by  that  vessel 
and  the  needed  amount  can  be  easily  obtained.  If  light  measure- 
ment cargo  is  wanted,  it  is  possible  that  there  will  be  a  supply  of 
tobacco,  cotton,  or  other  measurement  freight  from  which  to  draw. 
In  some  cases  the  required  class  of  freight  is  not  to  be  had  even  at 
berth-cargo  rates,  and  the  vessel  must  sail  with  a  poorly  balanced 
cargo  or  must  proceed  to  a  near-by  port  where  such  freight  is  avail- 
able. Liners,  sailing  on  schedule,  cannot  be  held  to  collect  a  well- 
balanced  cargo,  nor  can  they  be  sent  to  adjacent  ports,  so  it  is  common 
for  them  to  sail  in  a  partially  laden  condition.  The  owner  or  char- 
terer of  a  tramp,  however,  may  find  it  advisable  to  send  his  ship  to 
another  port.  This  is  a  very  common  practice  in  some  trades,  as  in 
the  cork-carrying  trade  of  Portugal  and  Spain.  Cork  has  a  very 
high  stowage  factor,  .so  that  a  vessel  laden  with  cork  alone  will 
ride  high  in  the  water  and  will  be  in  an  unseaworthy  condition. 
Therefore,  many  vessels,  before  loading  their  cork,  will  sail  to  an 
adjacent  port  for  a  part  cargo  of  iron  ore  or  other  dead-weight. 

Lessened  Importance  of  Obtaining  Full  Cargo. — The  whole  prob- 
lem of  securing  an  ideally  balanced  cargo  is  not  so  important  as  it 
formerly  was,  because  the  time  factor  is  now  of  greater  consideration 
and  because  the  modern  vessel  is  larger  and  can  adjust  its  draft  to 
some  extent  by  filling  or  emptying  its  water  tanks.  The  master  of 
the  old  sailing  vessel  felt  compelled  to  get  a  cargo  that  satisfied  the 


194  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

requirements  of  his  ship.  The  loss  of  a  few  days  in  port  did  not 
mean  much  when  compared  with  the  loss  of  revenue  or  with  the 
danger  of  the  long  voyage.  Plenty  of  dead  weight  was  required  in 
order  to  make  the  vessel  stable  at  sea ;  the  hold  had  to  be  completely 
filled  or  the  tossing  of  the  small  craft  by  the  waves  would  cause  a 
shifting  of  the  cargo;  and  a  full  cargo  was  necessary  to  show  profits 
for  the  long  period  of  the  voyage.  The  owner  of  a  modern  steamer, 
however,  can  increase  profits  best  by  decreasing  his  "turn-around." 
He  depends  more  on  speed  and  less  on  full  cargoes  than  does  the 
owner  of  the  sailing  vessel.  He  can  make  speed  best  by  spending 
fewer  days  in  port,  and  therefore  he  loads  quickly  the  freight  that  is 
available,  even  though  it  does  not  give  a  well-balanced  cargo. 
If  it  is  too  light,  water  can  be  taken  into  the  tanks ;  if  it  is  so  heavy 
that  it  does  not  fill  the  space,  some  compartments  can  be  left  empty, 
or  it  can  be  secured  against  shifting  easily  as  compared  with  the 
difficulty  of  securing  the  cargo  of  a  sailing  vessel. 

But  even  now  the  matter  of  properly  adjusting  the  accepted 
freight  to  the  vessel  demands  a  great  deal  of  consideration.  As 
already  suggested,  there  are  two  problems.  One  is  that  of  safely 
securing  against  shifting  dead-weight  cargo  that  does  not  fill  the 
space  allotted  to  it.  The  second  problem,  which  is  more  serious, 
is  that  of  compressing  measurement  freight  into  the  smallest 
possible  volume  in  order  to  get  the  maximum  amount  into  the 
space. 

Stowing  Cargo  with  Low  Stowage  Factors. — There  are  a 
number  of  commodities  that  will  lower  a  vessel  to  its  marks  before  the 
space  is  filled,  and  some  of  these  are  very  important  commercial 
products.  Iron  ore  is  perhaps  the  best  example  of  such  a  commodity. 
It  is  of  such  commercial  importance  and  fits  the  ordinary  vessel  so 
poorly  that  special  fleets  of  steamers  have  been  designed  to  carry  it. 
If  heavy  ore  is  put  in  the  hold  of  a  vessel  designed  to  carry  general 
cargo,  the  deep-load  line  will  be  reached  before  the  space  is  filled, 
and  it  then  becomes  necessary  to  take  precautions  against  the  shifting 
of  the  ore.  It  was  seen  that  the  logical  thing  to  do  would  be  to 
contract  the  hold  space,  and  this  plan  has  been  carried  into  effect. 
The  style  of  steamer  adopted  by  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Company  to 
bring  iron  ore  from  Chile  has  a  double  bottom  raised  17  feet  above 
the  keel  to  contract  the  hold  space  and  raise  the  center  of  gravity  of 
the  ore,  and  its  hold  breadth  is  only  one-half  the  beam  of  the  ves- 


STOWAGE  AND  STOWAGE  FACTORS  195 

sel.3     Such  vessels  can  carry  ore,  coal,  and  other  heavy  bulk  cargoes 
more  economically  and  safely  than  can  the  ordinary  steamer. 

However,  the  movement  of  heavy  freight  is  not  confined  to  spe- 
cially designed  vessels.  Much  of  it  is  carried  by  the  common  types 
of  steamer  in  cargo  lots  or  less  than  full  cargo  lots.  If  combined 
with  other  freight  having  a  higher  stowage  factor,  the  cargo  can  be 
properly  balanced  in  all  probability ;  but  if  it  makes  up  a  large  part, 
or  all,  of  the  cargo,  special  stowage  measures  must  be  adopted  to 
insure  safety.  The  mass  cannot  be  permitted  to  lie  loose  in  the 
hold,  nor  should  all  the  weight  be  concentrated.  The  stevedore  must 
"blow  it  up"  to  raise  the  center  of  gravity  in  order  that  the  vessel  will 
not  roll  excessively.  The  method  of  doing  this  for  rails  is  described 
as  follows  by  Hillcoat  (p.  148)  : 

Railway  iron  should  be  stowed  fore-and-aft  until  level  with  the 
keelson,  then  diagonally,  that  is,  grating  fashion,  keeping  the  rails 
well  apart  so  that  the  weight  will  be  raised  to  make  the  ship  easy  in  a 
seaway. 

Protect  the  ship's  side  with  bars  laid  fore-and-aft  on  top  of  each 
other  where  the  stowing  is  diagonal.  Use  rough  sawn  battens  be- 
tween the  tiers  when  necessary. 

Finish  by  stowing  fore-and-aft,  locking  the  two  top  tiers  or  so  by 
inverting  the  upper  rail ;  then  lay  3-inch  planks  across  the  cargo 
under  the  beams  and  tomb  them  well  down,  placing  the  tombs  about 
5  feet  apart;  also  wedge  the  upper  tiers  at  the  sides  by  driving 
large  wedges  down  on  planks  put  up  and  down  before  stowing  for 
the  purpose. 

The  'tween-deck  cargo  is  stowed  fore-and-aft  and  is  well  tombed 
down  like  the  lower  hold. 

The  end  tiers  have  also  to  be  lashed  with  chain  to  keep  them  from 
fetching  away  when  the  ship  is  pitching  heavily,  a  space  being  left 
about  a  third  of  the  distance  from  the  midship  stanchions,  between 
them  and  the  side,  for  the  purpose.  Bars  are  laid  across  the  top 
and  the  lashing  passed  around  them  and  the  'tween-deck  beam.  With 
a  laid  'tween-deck,  rails  will  have  to  be  laid  across  the  first  tier  on 
the  deck  to  lash  down  to.  The  lashings  are  wedged  up  tight  and  will 
require  attending  to  at  sea. 

Reducing  Stowage  Factors. — Most  of  the  articles  that  are 
carried  by  liner  services,  and  even  by  tramps,  on  the  more  important 

3  Discussion  of  H.  P.  Frear  on  address  of  H.  C.  Sadler,  "Bulk  Freight 
Vessels  of  the  Great  Lakes,"  Trans.  Intern.  Eng.  Cong.,  Vol.  X  (1915),  123. 


196  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

trade  routes  of  the  world  have  such  high  stowage  factors  that  they 
fill  the  holds  before  bringing  the  vessel  to  their  marks.  The  greater 
saving  in  shipping  space,  therefore,  can  be  made  by  reducing  the 
stowage  factors,  or  by  adopting  stowage  measures  that  will  permit  a 
greater  number  of  packages  to  be  stowed  in  a  given  space.  In  some 
instances  saving  can  be  made  by  changing  the  design  of  vessels. 

Advantages  of  Reduction. — As  previously  stated,  the  average 
cargo  steamer  is  completely  filled  and  weighted  by  articles  stowing 
at  from  about  52  to  55.  It  is  not  recommended  that  all  articles  be 
packed  so  that  each  ton  will  occupy  52  to  55  cubic  feet,  for  this  would 
be  impossible  of  realization  and  would  be  uneconomical  for  those 
articles  with  a  low  stowage  factor;  but  it  would  be  desirable  if  the 
stowage  factors  of  many  commodities  could  be  reduced  to  approxi- 
mately this  figure.  This  is  a  problem  for  the  manufacturing  ex- 
porter or  other  shipper  of  the  goods.  His  backwardness  in  attacking 
the  problem  may  be  explained  partly  on  the  ground  that  he  is  un- 
aware of  its  existence  and  partly  by  other  packing  complexities  that 
demand  his  consideration.  As  far  as  known,  the  manufacturer  has 
never  yet  been  told  what  the  stowage  factor  of  his  goods  should  be, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  even  knows  what  "stowage  factor" 
means.  He  has  been  given  much  advice  concerning  packing  to  avoid 
damage,  packing  to  avoid  excessive  custom  charges,  allowable  maxi- 
mum weights  and  measurements,  and  other  matters,  but  he  has  never 
been  told  that  the  average  vessel  will  carry  the  maximum  amount  if 
its  cargo  occupies  about  55  cubic  feet  to  the  ton.  Perhaps  he  would 
'not  be  interested  in  such  a  statement,  for  he  would  not  see  that 
it  had  any  direct  bearing  on  his  freight  charges.  In  most  cases 
there  would  be  no  direct  immediate  effect,  but  a  general  reduction  in 
freight  rates.  Ocean  freight  rates  are  fixed  largely  by  competitive 
conditions.  If  the  world  tonnage  could  be  handled  by  fewer  vessels, 
there  would  be  greater  competition  and  rates  would  inevitably  be 
lowered.  The  probable  effect  in  one  trade  alone  can  be  illustrated  by 
considering  the  case  of  cotton. 

The  American  standard  bale  of  cotton  stows  at  about  125  cubic 
feet.  The  average  annual  export  of  cotton  for  the  period  of  1914- 
1918  was  about  7,000,000  bales,  or  1,400,000  tons,  since  the  average 
bale  weighs  500  pounds.  The  total  shipping  space  annually  neces- 
sary to  carry  our  cotton  to  foreign  markets  was,  therefore,  195,000,- 
OOO  cubic  feet.  This  would  require  551  steamers  of  350,000  cubic 


STOWAGE  AND  STOWAGE  FACTORS  197 

feet  bale  capacity  and  a  dead  weight  of  7,500  tons.  Assume  now 
that  our  export  bales  could  be  compressed  to  the  density  of  the  bales 
from  India  and  China,  giving  a  stowage  factor  of  50.  Only  70,000,- 
ooo  cubic  feet  of  space  would  then  be  required  and  this  would  be 
provided  by  200  vessels  of  the  size  considered.  If  each  steamer 
engaged  was  employed  continuously  in  this  service  and  made 
8  round  trips  a  year,  69  vessels  would  be  required  to  carry  the  cotton 
as  now  baled  and  only  25  if  the  bales  were  packed  according  to 
Chinese  custom.  Forty-four  vessels  would  thus  be  made  available 
for  other  service,  and  if  other  service  were  not  readily  available, 
their  owners  would  cut  the  freight  rates  on  cotton  in  order  to  get  a 
share  of  that  business.  The  Shipping  Board  has  recognized  the 
great  saving  in  space  that  could  be  made  by  better  packing  of  cotton, 
and,  for  some  time,  refused  to  allow  the  operators  of  its  vessels  to 
accept  the  standard  bale,  thus  forcing  the  shippers  to  put  up  high 
density  bales  having  a  stowage  factor  of  about  85. 

Reduction  in  War  Period. — The  shortage  of  shipping  during  the 
World  War  accomplished  wonders  in  the  general  reduction  of  stow- 
age factors.  This  was  noticeable  to  those  compiling  the  list  of  factors 
for  the  War  Trade  Board.  More  compact  packing  of  a  given  com- 
modity would  decrease  its  stowage  factor  by  5  or  more.  Perhaps  the 
most  important  work  done  along  this  line  in  the  United  States  was 
that  of  the  Packing  Service  Branch  of  the  Army.  In  order  to  econo- 
mize space  in  supply  ships,  radical  changes  in  packing  were  adopted. 
Clothing,  blankets,  etc.,  were  baled  instead  of  cased,  and  this 
alone  caused  a  saving  of  over  $49,000,000  in  freight  rates  during 
I9i8.4 

The  space  occupied  by  a  5-ton  Packard  truck  was  decreased  from 
1,000  cubic  feet  to  268  cubic  feet,  and  similar  reductions  were  made 
with  other  cased  goods. 

Reduction  by  Eliminating  Broken  Stowage. — It  was  easy  for  the 
Army  authorities  to  specify  the  kind  of  packing  acceptable,  but  the 
shipowner  cannot  do  this.  He  must  take  the1  goods  as  they  are 
delivered,  unless  the  packing  is  unsafe,  and  he  must  stow  them  in  the 
least  possible  space.  He  cannot  repack  the  articles,  but  he  can 
economize  space  by  eliminating  "broken  stowage."  The  first  step 
toward  this  end  is  taken  by  the  booking  clerk,  who  should  secure  some 

4  Capt.  H.  R.  Moody,  "Packing  for  Export."  Official  Proceedings  of  the 
Sixth  National  Foreign  Trade  Convention,  557-563. 


198  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

small  package  freight  to  be  used  to  fill  in  the  broken  stowage  around 
the  larger  units.  The  next  step  is  taken  by  the  pier  superintendent 
or  stevedore  in  planning  the  stowage  so  that  packages  will  fit  snugly 
in  the  space  allotted  to  them.  And  the  final  steps  are  taken  by  the 
foreman,  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  the  packages  are  compactly 
stowed. 

The  work  of  the  booking  agent,  although  important,  requires 
little  further  explanation.  If  he  has  booked  a  large  number  of  bulky 
packages  of  different  shapes  and  sizes,  he  should  also  secure,  even  at 
a  reduction  in  rates,  a  number  of  small  boxes,  bags,  and  articles  to 
fill  the  spaces  left  between  the  larger  packages.  In  some  cases  the 
clerk  does  his  work  correctly,  but  it  goes  to  naught  because  the  smaller 
articles  are  not  delivered  to  the  hold  in  time  to  be  of  any  use.  This 
might  be  the  fault  of  the  shipper,  the  transportation  medium,  or  the 
stevedore,  who  does  not  have  transfer  from  the  pier  made  at  the 
proper  time. 

Planning  the  distribution  of  the  cargo  to  economize  space  is 
difficult  to  describe  because  it  varies  with  each  cargo.  One  or  two 
illustrations  will  best  indicate  the  gain  that  can  be  made  by  careful 
planning.  If  the  cargo  consists  of  lumber  and  barrel  oil,  it  would 
obviously  be  unwise  to  place  the  oil  at  the  bottom  of  the  hold.  The 
beam  there  is  contracted  and  the  number  of  "longers"  that  could 
be  placed  would  be  limited.  If  the  lumber  is  placed  on  the  ceiling 
it  conforms  well  to  the  shape  of  the  lower  hold  and  the  great  breadth 
of  beam  above  is  reserved  for  the  barrels.  This  expedites  the  stow- 
age of  the  barrels  and  reduces  the  broken  stowage  considerably. 
Another  shipment  may  consist  of  a  number  of  boxed  automobiles, 
each  measuring  6  feet  by  6  feet  by  10  feet,  and  the  stevedore  wishes 
to  place  the  maximum  number  in  a  between  space  measuring  6  feet 
in  height  by  45  feet  fore-and-aft  by  64  feet  beam.  If  he  puts  the 
boxes  so  that  their  lengths  are  fore-and-aft  he  can  get  in  6  rows  of 
7  boxes  each,  or  a  total  of  42  boxes.  If  the  lengths  of  the  boxes  are 
athwartship,  there  will  be  10  rows  with  4  boxes  in  each  row,  or  a  total 
of  40  boxes.  By  figuring  this  out  on  paper  beforehand,  the  stevedore 
may  avoid  loss  of  time  and  loss  of  space. 

The  foreman  and  the  individual  longshoreman  must  exercise 
discretion  in  eliminating  broken  stowage  between  units  of  cargo. 
They  must  place  the  larger  units  compactly  and  fill  in,  if  possible, 
any  vacancies  that  unavoidably  occur.  Compact  stowing  requires  the 


STOWAGE  AND  STOWAGE  FACTORS  199 

use  of  both  muscle  and  brain.  Muscle  is  needed  to  force  the  units 
together.  In  stowing  sacks  of  sugar,  flour,  etc.,  the  longshoremen 
should  throw  the  sacks  forcefully  into  place,  thus  subjecting  the 
contents  to  pressure  and  gaining  a  little  space  with  each  sack.  On 
some  classes  of  cargo  pressure  is  applied  mechanically.  It  was 
formerly  the  practice  to  spend  a  great  deal  of  time  in  compression  of 
cargoes  of  raw  fibers,  seeds,  tobacco,  and  other  products,  but  this  is 
no  longer  done  to  any  large  extent  except  with  cotton  cargoes.  In 
stowing  cotton  at  most  of  the  southern  ports  of  the  United  States, 
hand  screws  are  used  to  press  the  bales  tightly  together  in  order  that  a 
larger  number  of  bales  may  be  placed  in  the  hold.  "Screwing"  of 
standard  bales  results  in  a  saving  of  about  2  cubic  feet  to  the  bale, 
so  that,  for  a  large  cargo  of  cotton,  it  is  an  economical  operation  in 
spite  of  the  time  consumed. 

Skill  is  displayed  in  securing  compact  stowage  of  packages  of 
irregular  shape,  and  in  properly  arranging  the  stowage  of  two  or 
more  differently  shaped  packages  in  one  space.  In  stowing  car 
wheels,  for  example,  the  flanges  of  one  pair  must  be  set  against 
the  axles  of  the  next,  and  the  space  above  and  below  the  axles  should 
be  filled  with  cases  of  the  proper  size  and  strength.  An  illustration  of 
the  thought  and  care  necessary  is  afforded  by  the  method  of  stowing 
completely  assembled  locomotives  on  the  Feltore.  Two  thicknesses 
of  oak  planks  (3"  by  12"  by  38')  were  first  laid  on  the  "ceiling," 
and  into  these  the  wheel  flanges  were  buried  to  their  depth  by  the 
weight  of  the  locomotives.  Each  locomotive  was  lowered  by  a  10O- 
ton  barge  crane  into  the  exact  spot  it  was  to  occupy  or  as  near  thereto 
as  possible.  They  were  placed  as  close  as  their  cow-catchers  would 
allow,  with  the  pilots  toward  the  after  bulkheads.  In  this  way  two 
athwartship  rows  of  5  locomotives  each  were  placed.  The  space  left 
against  the  forward  bulkhead  was  partially  filled  with  a  locomotive 
placed  athwartship.  Wedges  were  put  under  the  springs  to  distribute 
the  weight  and  all  brakes  were  set.  Six  blocks  of  wood  of  the  proper 
shape  were  then  placed  on  each  boiler,  and  large  timbers  were  laid 
on  these,  lengthwise  of  the  engines.  Baled  hay  was  placed  in  all 
vacancies  around  the  locomotives  and  five  thicknesses  of  bales  were 
placed  on  top  of  the  timbers  over  the  boilers.  This  provided  a 
solid,  secure  floor  upon  which  tenders  were  stowed,  blocked,  and 
dunnaged.  There  was  still  10  feet  of  space  left  above  the  tier  of  ten- 
ders and  this  was  filled  with  hay,  oats,  and  motor  trucks.  The 


200  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

whole  cargo  consisted  of  33  complete  locomotives  and  tenders,  2,400 
tons  of  rails  and  splices,  2,300  tons  of  hay,  600  tons  of  oats,  53 
motor  trucks,  and  i  thirty-foot  steam  launch. 

Deck  Loads. — With  goods  having  exceptionally  high  stowage 
factors,  the  vessel  cannot  be  lowered  to  its  marks  by  below-deck  cargo, 
even  with  the  most  careful  stowage.  Nonperishable  goods  can  be 
stowed  on  deck,  however,  and  this  is  a  common  practice  with  ship 
loads  of  lumber,  cork,  and  other  commodities.  For  the  carriage  of 
lumber,  the  most  important  commercial  commodity  of  this  class, 
especially  designed  vessels  have  been  built,  having  a  wide  beam  to 
compensate  for  the  high  center  of  gravity,  a  high  freeboard  and  a 
great  forward  sheer  to  prevent  wash  of  the  deck  cargo,  and  a  bridge 
far  aft  to  provide  a  long  unobstructed  deck  space  for  the  deck  cargo.5 

5  Johnson  and  Huebner,  Principles  of  Ocean   Transportation,  44-46. 


REFERENCES 

Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Port  of  New  Orleans,  Analysis  of  Pres- 
ent Operation  of  the  Port  of  New  Orleans,  Vol.  I,  1915.  Prefaced 
by  Ford,  Bacon,  and  Davis,  Engineers. 

HILLCOAT,  CHAS.  W.,  Notes  on  the  Stowage  of  Ships.  Imray,  Lowrie, 
Norie  &  Wilson,  London,  1918. 

JOHNSON,  E.  R.,  AND  HUEBNER,  G.  G.,  Principles  of  Ocean  Trans- 
portation. D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1918. 

JOHNSON,  P.  W.,  Encyclopedia  of  Transportation.  The  Wheeler  & 
Wheeler  Co.,  Chicago,  1892. 

STEVENS,  ROBERT  W.,  On  the  Stowage  of  Ships  and  Their  Cargoes. 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  London,  1894. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Standards:  "Table  of  Unit  Displacement  of  Com- 
modities," Circular  No.  77.  Government  Printing  Office,  Wash- 
ington, 1919. 


CHAPTER  XII 

LAWS  GOVERNING  STOWAGE1 

Necessity  of  Laws  and  Regulations. — The  large  number  of 
cases  of  total  or  partial  loss  of  ships  and  of  cargoes  of  goods  indicates 
that  vessels  are  not  properly  constructed  to  withstand  the  dangers  of 
ocean  navigation  or  that  they  are  not  properly  stowed  or  operated. 
The  seriousness  of  these  losses  has  long  occupied  the  minds  of  those 
men  who  are  primarily  interested  in  the  safe  transportation  of  goods 
and  passengers  by  water.  Early  in  the  history  of  maritime  affairs  it 
was  seen  that  the  individual  shipowner,  who  looked  for  profits  only 
and  whose  desire  for  large  profits  often  overcame  his  better  judgment, 
could  not  be  depended  upon  to  develop  the  safety  and  comfort  of 
transport  essential  to  the  successful  growth  of  a  large  and  prosper- 
ous merchant  marine,  carrying  passengers  and  freight  to  all  parts 
of  the  world  under  all  sorts  of  conditions.  It  was  necessary  to  curb 
the  spirit  of  daring  that  accompanies  sea  life,  and  to  regulate  the 
construction  and  operation  of  vessels  in  order  that  international 
commerce  and  intercourse  might  grow  naturally  and  without  inter- 
ruption. 

Gradually,  therefore,  a  set  of  regulations  has  been  developed  to 
insure  maximum  safety  at  sea.  These  regulations  are  unsatisfac- 
tory in  many  ways.  They  are  unnecessarily  restrictive  in  some  mat- 
ters and  too  lenient  in  others,  and  they  have  been  issued  and  enforced 
by  so  many  different  agencies  and  bodies  that  it  is  difficult  for  a  man 
new  to  maritime  affairs  to  understand  them.  Yet  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  they  be  understood  in  order  that  they  may  be  obeyed 
and  that  suggestions  may  be  offered  for  their  improvement.  If  our 
laws  and  regulations  are  to  satisfy  the  men  of  the  shipping  world, 
these  men  not  only  must  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  present 
laws  but  must  be  prepared  to  plan  changes  in  their  wording  and  in 
their  administration.  The  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the  United 

*By  Thomas  R.  Taylor. 

201 


202  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

States  will  be  the  leading  maritime  nation  and  its  growth  in  equip- 
ment must  be  accompanied  by  an  expansion  and  simplification  of 
maritime  law. 

For   purposes   of   discussion   the   present    laws    and    regulations 
affecting  the  stowage  of  vessels  may  be  grouped  as  follows : 

I.     Laws  and  regulations  relative  to  the  general  seaworthi- 
ness of  vessels. 

1.  Governmental  laws  applicable  to  all  vessels. 

2.  Governmental    laws    applicable    to   passenger 

vessels. 

3.  Rules  of  insurance  underwriters. 

4.  Rules  of  classification  societies. 

II.     Laws  and  regulations  relative  to  the  stowage  and  car- 
riage of  certain  classes  of  goods. 

1.  Grain. 

2.  Live  stock. 

3.  Dangerous  goods. 


LAWS  RELATIVE  TO  SEAWORTHINESS  OF  VESSELS 

Governmental  Laws  Applicable  to  All  Vessels. — The  laws 
of  most  nations  make  it  a  crime  for  a  shipowner  to  send  his  vessel 
to  sea  unless  it  is  fit  to  carry  cargo  and  is  in  a  seaworthy  condition. 
The  Harter  Act,  passed  by  the  United  States  in  1893,  *s  typical  in 
its  provisions.  It  provides  that  if  the  shipowner  has  not  showed 
negligence,  fault  or  failure  in  proper  loading,  stowage,  custody,  care, 
or  proper  delivery,  and  if  he  has  used  diligence  in  equipping,  man- 
ning, provisioning,  and  outfitting  the  vessel,  he  shall  not  be  respon- 
sible for  loss  or  damage  to  goods  due  to  (a)  faults  and  errors  in 
navigation  and  management ;  (b)  dangers  of  the  sea  or  other  navi- 
gable water ;  (c)  acts  of  God ;  (d)  acts  of  public  enemies ;  (e) 
inherent  defects,  quality  or  vice  of  the  goods  carried;  (f)  insuffi- 
ciency of  package  containing  the  goods;  (g)  seizure  under  legal 
process;  (h)  act  or  omission  of  the  shipper  or  owner  of  the  goods; 
(i)  the  saving  or  attempt  to  save  life  or  property  at  sea,  and  (j) 
deviation  from  course  to  save  or  to  attempt  to  save  life  or  property 
at  sea. 

In  interpreting  this  law  and  similar  laws  of  other  nations,  the 


LAWS  GOVERNING  STOWAGE  203 

courts  have  decided  that  the  shipowner  is  responsible   for  loss  or 
damage  occasioned  in  any  of  the  following  ways  : 

(a)  Failure  to  put  the  vessel  in  a  condition  to  receive  cargo  with- 
out damage  to  the  cargo.    The  holds  must  be  clean  and  fit  in  every 
way  to  contain  goods  without  damage. 

(b)  Failure  to  fit  the  vessel  in  design,  structure,  condition,  and 
equipment  to  encounter  the   ordinary  perils  of  the   voyage : .    The 
shipowner  is  responsible  for  defects  in  the  ship  or  its  equipment,  but 
he  is  assisted  in  his  efforts  to  disclose  the  defects.     The  vessel  is 
built  and  outfitted  under  the  supervision  of  trained  inspectors  of 
the   classification   societies,   and   certain   regulations   are   laid   down 
for  the  owner  to  follow  in  deciding  what  the  condition  and  equip- 
ment should  be.     Thus,  the  laws  of  many  maritime  nations   (not 
including  the  United  States)   specify  the  draft  to  which  the  vessel 
may  be  lowered,  and  the  owner  must  be  guided  by  the  load  lines 
marked  on  the  sides  of  his  ship.    A  vessel  that  is  unfit  may  be  de- 
tained  at   British  ports,   and   the   inspectors   of   the    United   States 
Steamboat  Inspection  Service  may  refuse  permission  to  operate  an 
unfit  steam  vessel. 

The  vessel  must  not  only  be  fit  to  encounter  ordinary  sea  perils 
but  it  must  also  be  fit  to  carry  safely  to  their  destination  goods  of 
any  particular  kind  that  it  guarantees  to  transport.  If  it  under- 
takes to  carry  chilled  meat  it  must  be  capable  of  keeping  that  meat  at 
the  proper  temperature  throughout  the  voyage. 

(c)  Failure  to  provide  a  competent  master  and  a  competent  and 
sufficient  crew. 

(d)  Failure  to  provide  a  pilot  at  a  port  where  one  may  be 
secured  and  the  nature  of  navigation  requires  one,  unless  the  master 
himself  has  a  competent  knowledge  of  navigation. 

(e)  Loading  a  cargo  which  is  not  a  safe  one  for  such  a  voyage 
as  might  be  reasonably  expected. 

(f)  Failure  to  stow  the  cargo  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  be  kept 
safe  and  intact  until  delivery. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  owner  of  a  freight  vessel 
is  limited  in  his  control  of  that  vessel.  He  must  build  it  in  a  speci- 
fied manner,  he  must  provide  competent  officers  and  crew,  he  must 
make  it  fit  to  receive  cargo,  he  must  not  load  cargo  that  is  unsafe,  and 
he  must  stow  the  cargo  safely.  If  he  does  not  do  these  things  he 
must  suffer  the  consequences ;  and  the  chief  fault  to  find  with  the 


204  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

laws  is  the  fact  that  it  is  "consequences"  rather  than  prevention  of 
movement  that  he  must  face.  In  other  words,  there  is  no  representa- 
tive of  the  United  States  who  has  the  authority  to  examine  a  vessel 
before  its  sailing  and  to  prohibit,  if  necessary,  its  departure.  The 
owner  of  a  freight  vessel  still  has  the  power  of  sending  his  vessel  to 
sea  in  an  unseaworthy  condition,  and  he  will  do  so  if  the  chances  of 
reward  seem  greater  than  the  chances  of  loss.  The  work  of  the  super- 
vising inspectors  of  the  United  States  Steamboat  Inspection  Service 
should  be  enlarged  to  include  the  inspection  of  each  vessel  before  it 
sails.  Such  inspection  is  now  provided  by  the  insurance  under- 
writers, .but  their  decisions  are  not  mandatory. 

Governmental  Laws  Applicable  to  Passenger  Vessels.— 
Regulation  of  the  equipment  and  operation  of  passenger  vessels 
is  more  strict  than  the  regulation  of  freight  vessels  because  of  the 
greater  risk  to  human  life  in  the  case  of  passenger  vessels.  The 
Passenger  Act  of  1882  and  other  acts  passed  by  the  United  States 
define  the  shipowner's  responsibility  and  specify  the  conditions  under 
which  the  vessel  may  proceed.  Most  of  these  specifications,  how- 
ever, do  not  deal  with  the  question  of  stowage  of  cargo,  and  there- 
fore cannot  be  considered  here.  As  in  the  case  of  freight  vessels,  the 
laws  of  the  United  States  are  faulty  in  that  they  provide  only  for 
yearly  inspection,  rather  than  for  inspection  prior  to  sailing.  A 
vessel  carrying  a  thousand  passengers  may  be  so  loaded  that  it  is  in 
imminent  danger  of  catastrophe,  yet  it  may  sail  unmolested.  As  with 
freight  steamers,  the  supervising  inspectors  of  the  United  States 
Steamboat  Inspection  Service  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  make 
the  required  annual  inspection  of  hull,  machinery  and  equipment, 
but  they  do  not  have  the  authority  to  inspect  before  each  sailing. 

Rules  of  Insurance  Underwriters. — Owing  to  the  necessity  of 
protecting  their  own  interests,  men  who  underwrote  insurance  on 
hulls,  cargo,  and  freight  felt  compelled  to  lay  down  certain  rules  and 
regulations  to  be  followed  by  the  shipowner.  The  first  underwriters 
of  marine  insurance  were  those  who  gathered  at  Lloyd's  coffee  house 
in  London  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  out  of  this  group  arose  an 
underwriters'  association  and  a  classification  society,  both  of  which 
are  still  internationally  known  as  Lloyd's.  The  purpose  of  the 
underwriters'  association  was  to  facilitate  the  distribution  of  insur- 
ance risks  among  the  members  and  to  form  a  rate  system  the 
basis  of  which  would  be  the  risk  factor.  In  determining  the  degree 


LAWS  GOVERNING  STOWAGE  205 

of  risk  a  primary  consideration  was  the  stowage  of  cargo,  and  there- 
fore this  and  similar  organizations  have  always  played  an  important 
part  in  determining  the  method  and  place  of  stowing  goods.  In  this 
country  we  have  a  number  of  such  associations,  well  represented  in 
New  York  by  the  Board  of  Underwriters  of  New  York  and  the 
National  Board  of  Marine  Underwriters.  In  addition  there  are  a 
large  number  of  individual  marine  insurance  companies  with  capital 
enough  to  carry  alone  the  insurance  on  a  ship  or  on  several  ships. 
The  associations  or  companies  have  representatives  in  the  different 
ports  to  act  as  inspectors  of  risks,  and  these  men  have  the  power  to 
refuse  insurance  altogether  or  to  fix  the  rate. 

If  the  shipowner  desires  insurance  on  a  cargo  he  applies  to  an 
underwriter,  who,  in  order  to  fix  the  rate,  looks  up  the  record  of  the 
ship  and  its  officers,  and  sends  his  representative  to  watch  the  loading 
process  and  to  prescribe,  if  necessary,  how  the  stowage  shall  be 
carried  out.  If  the  stevedore,  the  master,  and  the  insurance  repre- 
sentative work  in  harmony,  there  is  no  difficulty,  but  in  many  cases 
it  is  to  the  advantage  of  the  stevedore  and  master  to  conceal  matters 
from  the  inspector,  and  this  places  the  inspector  at  a  disadvantage, 
for  it  makes  his  inspection  more  difficult,  and  he  cannot  well  refuse 
insurance  unless  he  can  prove  before  a  court  that  the  vessel  is  unsea- 
worthy.  His  is  the  only  check  on  the  stowage  of  the  vessel,  and  it 
is  fortunate  that  the  average  intelligence  and  loyalty  of  the  inspec- 
tors are  so  high  that  few  faults  escape  their  attention  and  condemna- 
tion. 

In  addition  to  providing  this  inspection  system,  the  underwriters 
have  in  some  instances  issued  instructions  for  the  guidance  of  their 
representatives  and  of  others.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  these  instructions 
refer  to  dangerous  cargo  and  will  be  mentioned  more  fully  later. 

Rules  of  Classification  Societies. — The  men  who  gathered  at 
Lloyd's  coffee  house  in  London  were  responsible  for  the  organization 
of  the  first  classification  society.  As  its  name  implies,  the  society 
was  formed  to  classify  vessels  with  respect  to  their  seaworthiness.  In 
order  to  give  them  an  initial  classification  it  was  necessary  to  inspect 
the  vessels  during  their  construction,  and  changes  in  classification 
could  be  determined  only  by  periodic  inspection  thereafter.  Vessels 
that  are  assigned  a  high  classification  and  are  maintained  there  have 
low  insurance  rates,  and  it  is,  therefore,  to  the  advantage  of  the 
shipowner  to  have  his  vessel  in  a  class  as  high  as  possible.  It  is  the 


2o6  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

general  practice  to  have  classified  all  vessels,  and  the  details  of  con 
struction  and  equipment  are  therefore  submitted  to  the  representa- 
tives of  the  classification  society  in  order  that  suggestions  may  be 
followed.  The  classification  of  all  vessels  and  the  essential  informa- 
tion concerning  them  is  published  in  large  books  that  are  familiar 
sights  in  any  marine  insurance  office. 

Lloyd's  is  still  the  most  influential  classification  society  and  its 
annual  Register  of  British  and  Foreign  Shipping  is  the  standard 
source  of  information  on  vessels.  But  there  are  similar  societies 
in  other  maritime  countries.  The  United  States  is  represented  by 
the  rapidly  growing  Bureau  of  American  and  Foreign  Shipping, 
which  publishes  the  American  Record  of  Shipping.  Some  of  these 
societies  are  semi-governmental  in  nature  and  are  delegated  to  enforce 
certain  maritime  laws.  Thus,  Lloyd's  has  been  given  the  authority 
to  regulate  the  marking  of  load  lines  on  British  vessels. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  these  societies  exert  a  powerful 
influence  in  determining  the  seaworthiness  of  vessels,  and  that  their 
inspections  have  been  of  immense  public  benefit.  It  is  largely  because 
their  work  has  proved  so  satisfactory  that  the  need  of  inspection  by 
government  officials  has  been  overlooked.  And  yet  they  are  not  en- 
tirely free  of  fault,  for  they  must  make  concessions  in  order  to  get 
business,  and  it  would  seem,  therefore,  that  some  central  public 
agency  could  perform  the  same  service  even  more  satisfactorily. 

LAWS  RELATIVE  TO  THE  STOWAGE  OF  CERTAIN  CLASSES  OF  GOODS 

Laws  and  regulations  for  the  stowage  and  carriage  of  certain 
classes  of  goods  have  been  issued  by  so  many  different  agencies  that 
it  is  almost  impossible  for  one  man  to  be  familiar  with  all  the 
instructions.  Port  authorities,  city  departments,  insurance  under- 
writers and  boards,  surveyors  of  vessels,  steamship  companies,  and 
various  governmental  bureaus  and  departments  all  have  the  author- 
ity to  prescribe  regulations  pertaining  to  stowage  of  cargo,  and  the 
result  is  duplication,  contradiction,  and  omission.  Duplication  and 
contradiction  are  to  be  noted  most  in  the  regulations  relative  to  the 
stowage  of  dangerous  goods.  Port  and  city  authorities,  pier  owners, 
and  governmental  bureaus  give  instructions  as  to  the  time,  place, 
and  method  of  loading  dangerous  goods;  underwriters,  steamship 
companies,  and  governmental  bureaus  prescribe  the  stowage.  The 


LAWS  GOVERNING  STOWAGE  207 

master  of  the  vessel  is  therefore  often  at  a  loss  as  to  whose  instruc- 
tions to  follow,  and  especially  so  if  he  is  proceeding  to  a  country 
where  even  different  regulations  are  in  force.  Because  it  is  so  easy  to 
be  confused,  it  is  very  desirable  that  we  point  out  here  the  principal 
agencies  that  have  published  regulations  on  this  subject. 

Grain. — The  stowage  of  grain  has  been  subject  to  much  regula- 
tion because  of  the  relatively  large  number  of  casualties  that  have 
befallen  members  of  the  grain  fleet  of  the  world.  Casualties  are 
numerous  because  of  the  seasonal  and  dangerous  character  of  the 
trade.  Soon  after  the  crop  is  gathered  large  numbers  of  tramp  vessels 
gather  at  the  exporting  ports,  at  most  of  which  the  facilities  are  inade- 
quate and  the  supervision  is  very  incomplete.  Many  of  these  vessels 
are  unfit  to  carry  a  commodity  of  this  sort.  Grain  cargoes  shift 
very  easily  and  are  damaged  by  water  and  vermin.  Moreover,  they 
are  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion,  and  many  vessels  have  been 
totally  destroyed  by  fire  starting  in  the  cargo  of  bulk  grain. 

The  boards  of  insurance  underwriters  are  the  only  agencies  in 
this  country  that  have  issued  instructions  regarding  the  stowage  of 
grain.  The  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Underwriters  of  New  York 
and  of  the  Board  of  Underwriters  of  New  Orleans  apply  to  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts.  The  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Under- 
writers of  San  Francisco  have  been  superseded  by  the  instructions  of 
the  San  Francisco  office  of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board.  All 
of  these  regulations  prescribe  the  erection  of  shifting  boards  to  pre- 
vent shifting  of  the  grain,  the  construction  of  feeders  in  the  between- 
decks  or  hatchway  to  feed  grain  into  the  hold  as  the  cargo  there  settles 
on  the  voyage,  and  other  matters  of  similar  character. 

Perhaps  the  best  known  regulations  are  those  of  the  Great  Britain 
Board  of  Trade.  Its  "Memorandum  Relating  to  Grain  Cargoes" 
is  procurable  at  Wyman  &  Sons,  London,  for  one  shilling,  and  its 
additional  memoranda  on  the  same  subject  may  be  followed  in  the 
columns  of  Lloyd's  List,  which  is  published  daily  in  London. 

Live  Stock. — Regulation  of  the  carriage  of  live  stock  from  the 
United  States  is  delegated  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  and  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
issued  in  1919  a  little  pamphlet  on  "Regulations  Governing  the  In- 
spection, Humane  Handling,  and  Safe  Transport  of  Export  Ani- 
mals." This  describes  in  detail  the  accommodations  that  must  be 
provided  for  animals  and  the  methods  of  handling  them,  and  it 


208  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  one  who  is  interested  in  this  phase  of 
the  stowage  question.  Other  countries  that  are  important  in  the 
export  trade  in  live  stock  have  also  issued  regulations,  with  which 
the  master  of  a  vessel  engaged  in  that  trade  must  become  familiar. 

Dangerous  Goods. — One  of  the  great  dangers  of  ocean  trans- 
port is  from  cargo  that  is  capable  of  destroying  the  vessel,  damaging 
other  cargo,  or  endangering  the  health  or  lives  of  the  crew.  The 
kinds  of  goods  that  may  do  these  things  are  indicated  on  page  221. 
In  efforts  to  minimize  the  danger  from  such  cargo  various  bodies 
have  published  information  and  instructions  concerning  them  and 
their  proper  stowage. 

The  first  set  of  regulations  demanding  consideration  is  that 
found  in  the  laws  of  the  United  States.  These  laws  may  be  divided 
into  seven  parts  on  the  basis  of  their  application.  The  first  part 
consists  of  Section  8  of  Passenger  Act  of  1882,  which  prohibits  the 
carriage  on  vessels  carrying  steerage  passengers  of  any  nitroglycerin, 
dynamite,  or  any  other  explosive  article  or  compound,  or  any  vitriol 
(sulphuric  acid)  or  like  acids,  or  gunpowder,  except  for  the  ship's  use, 
or  any  other  articles  which  may  endanger  the  health  or  lives  of  the 
passengers  or  the  safety  of  the  vessel. 

The  second  part  applies  to  steam  vessels  carrying  passengers 
and  consists  of  Sections  4422,  4424,  4472,  and  4473  of  the  Revised 
Statutes.  It  prohibits  the  carriage  on  steamers  carrying  passengers 
of  loose  hay,  loose  cotton,  loose  hemp,  camphene,  nitroglycerin, 
naphtha,  benzine,  benzol,  coal  oil,  crude  or  refined  petroleum,  or  other 
like  explosive  burning  fluid,  or  like  dangerous  articles.  It  also  speci- 
fies that  baled  cotton  or  hemp  shall  be  carried  on  such  vessels  only 
when  packed  as  prescribed  by  the  board  of  supervising  inspectors ; 
that  gunpowder  shall  be  carried  only  under  special  license;  that 
acids  must  be  carried  on  the  decks  or  the  guards  thereof ;  that  refined 
petroleum,  which  will  not  ignite  at  a  temperature  less  than  11O°  F., 
may  be  carried  under  regulations  on  such  steamers  upon  routes  where 
there  is  no  other  practical  mode  of  transporting  it,  and  that  turpen- 
tine and  matches  may  be  carried  if  packed  in  certain  ways. 

The  third  part  of  the  law  consists  of  Section  232  of  the  Act  of 
March  4,  1909,  and  applies  to  all  common  carriers  carrying  passen- 
gers. It  prohibits,  except  under  certain  conditions,  the  transportation 
of  dynamite,  gunpowder,  or  other  explosives  on  such  vessels. 

The  fourth  part  is  made  up  of  Section  4278,  Revised  Statutes, 


LAWS  GOVERNING  STOWAGE  209 

and  is  applicable  to  all  vessels  carrying  passengers.  It  prohibits 
the  transportation  on  all  such  vessels  of  nitroglycerin,  nitroleum, 
nitrated  oil,  or  powder  or  fiber  mixed  or  saturated  with  same. 

The  fifth  part  applies,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  to  all  steam 
vessels  carrying  either  passengers  or  freight.  Section  4474,  Revised 
Statutes,  states  the  conditions  under  which  oil  may  be  used  as  fuel, 
and  Sections  4475  and  4476  prescribe  that  gunpowder,  nitroglyc- 
erin, camphene,  naphtha,  benzine,  benzol,  coal  oil,  crude  or  refined 
petroleum,  acids,  oil  or  spirits  of  turpentine,  friction  matches,  and 
all  other  articles  of  like  character  shall  be  securely  packed  and  put 
up  separately  from  each  other  and  from  all  other  articles,  and  that 
the  container  of  such  an  article  must  be  distinctly  marked  on  the 
outside  with  the  name  or  description  of  the  article  therein. 

The  sixth  part  consists  of  Sections  234,  235,  and  236  of  the  Act 
of  March  4,  1909,  and  applies  to  all  common  carriers.  It  prohibits 
the  transport  of  liquid  nitroglycerin,  fulminate  in  bulk  in  dry  condi- 
tion, or  other  like  explosive ;  and  prescribes  that  all  packages  con- 
taining explosives  or  like  dangerous  articles  shall  be  plainly  marked 
on  the  outside. 

The  seventh  part  applies  to  all  vessels  and  is  made  up  of  Sec- 
tions 4279  and  4288,  Revised  Statutes.  It  prescribes  how  nitro- 
glycerin, nitroleum,  and  nitrated  oil  and  powders,  fibers  mixed  or 
saturated  with  same,  must  be  packed  and  marked  when  put  up  for 
shipment,  and  that  written  notice  must  be  given  by  the  shipper  to  the 
ship's  officer  of  the  shipment  of  oil  of  vitriol,  unslaked  lime,  in- 
flammable matches,  or  gunpowder. 

It  will  be  readily  apparent  that  the  confusion  of  these  laws  must 
be  Reflected  in  their  administration.  The  power  of  prohibiting  the 
transportation  of  articles  and  of  prescribing  the  mode  of  packing 
and  stowing  commodities  is  given  to  the  Supervising  Inspector  Gen- 
eral of  the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service.  He  and  his  supervising 
inspectors  have  performed  admirable  service  in  view  of  the  faulty 
laws  with  which  they  have  had  to  work.  Whenever  there  is  any 
question  about  the  dangerous  character  of  an  article  a  sample  is 
taken  by  the  inspector  and  sent  to  Washington,  where  it  is  examined 
by  the  Bureau  of  Standards.  This  Bureau  makes  recommendations 
to  the  Supervising  Inspector  General,  who  thereupon  publishes  a 
ruling  on  the  article.  There  are  hundreds  of  such  rulings  that  have 
been  published  in  the  circulars,  the  monthly  bulletins,  or  the  corre- 


210  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

spondence  of  the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service.  Almost  all  of  the 
rulings  refer  only  to  the  transportation  of  dangerous  articles  by 
passenger  steamers,  and  it  is  perhaps  true  that  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Steamboat  Inspection  Service  does  not  extend  to  the  transportation 
of  goods  by  freight  vessels  or  sailing  vessels  carrying  passengers.  A 
number  of  articles  are  prohibited  altogether  from  carriage  by  pas- 
senger steamers,  and  the  methods  of  packing  and  stowing  many 
others  are  outlined.  These  rulings  are  gathered  together  in  "Stowage 
of  Ship  Cargoes,"  sold  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Wash- 
ington, for  35  cents. 

Just  as  the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service  is  given  authority  in  the 
matter  of  transportation  of  goods  by  vessel,  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  is  given  authority  over  the  transportation  of  goods  by 
land  vehicles.  Its  regulations  are  available  to  all  in  its  publications, 
"Regulations  for  the  Transportation  of  Explosives  and  Other  Dan- 
gerous Articles  by  Freight  and  Express,  and  Specifications  for  Ship- 
ping Containers"  (about  250  pages)  and  "Supplement  No.  i"  to 
same,  procurable  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washing- 
ton, or  from  the  Bureau  of  Explosives,  New  York  City.  This  infor- 
mation is  of  great  value  to  steamship  officials  because  the  methods 
of  packing  and  marking  prescribed  for  railway  shipment  are  extended 
automatically  to  shipment  by  sea,  and  because  the  regulations  have 
been  applied  to  the  coastwise  lines.  Division  is  made  between 
explosives  and  other  dangerous  articles,  and  for  each  class  and 
each  article  the  methods  of  packing  and  marking  are  prescribed. 
There  are  also  detailed  specifications  for  the  manufacture  of  con- 
tainers for  shipping  various  dangerous  articles. 

The  coastwise  lines  are  governed  by  the  regulations  of  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Commission  and  of  the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service, 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  observe  these  rules  is  shown  in  the 
publications  of  the  Bureau  of  Explosives,  30  Vesey  Street,  New 
York,  especially  in  B.  E.  Pamphlet  No.  5-6,  "Regulations  for  the 
Transportation  of  Explosives  and  Dangerous  Articles  Other  than 
Explosives"  (1919).  The  pamphlet  consists  largely  of  a  table 
which  shows  the  way  in  which  the  different  coastwise  lines  handle 
various  dangerous  articles.  It  gives  about  the  same  information  that 
is  found  in  the  lists  of  dangerous  cargoes  that  are  privately  kept  by 
many  steamship  companies.  Such  a  list  should  be  maintained  by 
every  company.  This  is  conveniently  done  by  a  card  file,  in  which 


LAWS  GOVERNING  STOWAGE  211 

are  shown  the  names,  dangerous  characteristics  and  methods  of 
stowage  of  the  different  commodities. 

Another  source  of  information  which  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
every  one  interested  in  the  loading  of  explosives  is  in  the  publications 
of  the  Treasury  Department  on  anchorage  grounds.  The  Secretary 
of  War  establishes  anchorage  grounds  at  different  ports,  especially 
anchorage  grounds  for  the  loading  of  explosives,  and  prescribes 
regulations  relating  thereto.  These  regulations  are  enforced  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  through  the  Port  Captains  of  the  Coast 
Guard  at  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Norfolk,  and  along  the  St.  Mary's 
River;  at  other  ports  the  regulations  are  enforced  by  the  Chief  of 
Engineers  of  the  War  Department.  The  rules  laid  down  for  the 
loading  of  explosives  at  New  York,  Philadelphia,  or  Norfolk  may 
be  had  by  applying  to  the  Port  Captain  or  to  the  U.  S.  Coast  Guard, 
Washington. 

The  insurance  underwriters  have  a  great  deal  of  information  on 
dangerous  cargo,  only  some  of  which  is  published.  Boards  of  under- 
writers have  lists  of  dangerous  articles  which  are  open  to  the  inspec- 
tion of  members,  but  are  not  published,  largely  because  they  are  sub- 
ject to  constant  change.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  boards  have 
publicly  issued  advices  on  the  loading  and  stowing  of  certain  com- 
modities. The  Board  of  Underwriters  of  New  York  has  printed  in- 
structions on  the  loading  of  calcium  carbide,  iron  and  coal,  explosives, 
refined  oils,  and  deck  cargoes  of  coal.  The  National  Board  of 
Marine  Underwriters  has  published  a  set  of  rules  governing  the 
loading  of  turpentine,  rosin,  cottonseed  oil,  and  petroleum  oil  or  its 
products  in  barrels  from  Gulf  and  Southern  Atlantic  ports.  It  is 
rather  unfortunate  that  these  boards  are  not  more  active  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  information  of  this  kind. 

The  Board  of  Trade  in  Great  Britain  has  published  a  large 
amount  of  valuable  information  concerning  dangerous  cargoes,  and 
its  advice  is  more  generally  followed  in  the  marine  world  than  that 
of  any  other  body.  Its  "Memorandum  Relating  to  the  Carriage  of 
Dangerous  Goods  (Other  than  Explosives)  in  Ships"  (1915)  may 
be  obtained  from  Wyman  &  Sons,  London,  for  threepence. 

The  suggestion  has  been  made  that  all  of  these  regulations  on 
dangerous  articles  should  be  coordinated  and  administered  by  some 
national  or  international  body.  It  is  doubtful  whether  an  interna- 
tional tribunal  is  practical  at  present,  but  it  would  be  a  comparatively 


212  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

simple  matter  to  form  a  national  clearing  house  of  information 
and  regulation  by  simply  broadening  the  scope  of  the  work  of  the 
Steamboat  Inspection  Service.  It  seems  ridiculous  that  a  steamer 
loading  explosives  is  governed  by  regulations  laid  down  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  War  and  enforced  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and 
that  infractions  of  the  regulations  are  punished  by  the  Department 
of  Commerce.  Centralization  of  authority  must  be  had,  and  this 
centralized  authority  must  be  given  complete  power.  The  old 
laws  which  permit  the  unrestricted  shipment  of  alcohol  and 
prohibit  the  shipment  of  camphene  and  petroleum  on  steamers 
carrying  passengers  should  be  repealed,  and  the  Supervising 
Inspector  General  should  be  given  the  power  of  framing  a  com- 
plete set  of  regulations  and  of  administering  these  regulations  as  he 
sees  fit.  Any  law  must  be  elastic  to  allow  for  the  wide  differences  in 
ships,  commodities,  routes,  etc.,  and  an  administrative  body,  such  as 
the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service,  unhampered  by  old  laws,  could 
take  these  differences  into  consideration.  This  one  body,  with  proper 
authority  and  increased  personnel,  could  perform  invaluable 
service  in  securing  greater  safety  at  sea  and  in  relieving  the 
American  merchant  marine  of  the  needless  restrictions  now  imposed 
upon  it. 


REFERENCES 

AEBY,  JULIUS,  Dangerous  Goods.     Privately  published,  Antwerp,  1910. 
BARR,  HARRY  K.,  Stowage  and  Dangerous  Cargo.     Wycie  &  Co.,  New 

York,  1918. 

Board  of  Underwriters  of  New  Orleans   (Marine).     "Rules  for  Load- 
ing Grain."     New  Orleans,  1913. 
Board  of  Underwriters  of  New  York  (Marine): 

"Regulations  for  the  Loading  of  Calcium  Carbide."    New  York,  1913. 
"Rules  for  Loading  Grain."     New  York,  1917. 
"Rules  for  Loading  Vessels  with  Iron   and/or  Coal."     New  York, 

1898. 
"Regulations  for  the  Stowage  of  High  and  Low  Explosives."     New 

York,  1916. 

"Regulations  regarding  the  Loading  of  Gasoline,  Naphtha  and  Ben- 
zine." New  York,  1910. 

"Rules  and  Regulations  Regarding  the  Carrying  of  Coals  on  Deck 
for  Use  as  Bunker  Coal,  from  Ports  North  of  Hatteras  to  Ports 
South  of  that  Latitude."  New  York,  1900. 


LAWS  GOVERNING  STOWAGE  213 

Bureau  of  Explosives: 

"General   Information   Respecting   Explosives    and   Other   Dangerous 

Articles."     B.  E.  Pamphlet  No.  7.     30  Vesey  St.,  New  York,  1914. 

"Regulations   for   the  Transportation   of    Explosives    and   Dangerous 

Articles   other  than   Explosives."     B.   E.   Pamphlet   No.   5-6.     30 

Vesey  Street,  New  York,  1919. 

CARVER,  THOS.  G.,  A    Treatise   of  the  Law  Relating   to    the   Carriage 
of  Goods  by  Sea.     6th  Edition  by  James  S.   Henderson.     Stevens 
&   Sons,   London,    1918. 
Great  Britain  Board  of  Trade: 

"List  of  Principal  Acts  of  Parliament,  Regulations,  Orders,  Instruc- 
tions and  Notices  Relating  to  Merchant  Shipping  Which  Are  Now  in 
Force."     London,  August,   1917. 
"Memorandum  Relating  to  the   Carriage  of  Dangerous  Goods   and 

Explosives  in  Ships."     London,  1907. 
"Memorandum  Relating  to  the  Carriage  of  Dangerous  Goods  (Other 

than  Explosives)  in  Ships."  London,  1915. 

"Memorandum  Relating  to  Grain  Cargoes."  Darling  &  Son,  Lon- 
don, 1919. 

"Report  of  Committee  on  Load  Lines  of  Merchant  Ships  and  Car- 
riage of  Deck  Cargoes  of  Wood  Goods."  London,  1916. 
National  Board  of  Marine  Underwriters:  "Rules  Governing  the  Load- 
ing of  Turpentine,  Rosin,  Cottonseed  Oil,  and  Petroleum  Oil  or  Its 
Products  in  Barrels  from  Gulf  and  Southern  Atlantic  Ports."  New 
York,  1907. 

Port  Warden  of  the  Harbor  of  Montreal.  "Revised  Rules  and  By- 
Laws."  Montreal. 

SAMUELS,  WM.  S.  (Marine  Surveyor  and  Appraiser),  "Rules  for  Load- 
ing Case  Oil."    Philadelphia,  1911. 
TAYLOR,  T.  R.,  Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes.     Government  Printing  Office, 

1920. 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Navigation:     "Navigation  Laws  of  the  United  States." 

Government  Printing  Office,  1921. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry:  "Regu- 
lations Governing  the  Inspection,  Humane  Handling,  and  Safe 
Transport  of  Export  Animals."  Washington,  1919. 

U.  S.  Interstate  Commerce  Commission:  "Regulations  for  the  Trans- 
portation of  Explosives  and  Other  Dangerous  Articles  by  Freight 
and  Express  and  Specifications  for  Shipping  Containers."  Also 
Supplement  No.  i  to  same.  Government  Printing  Office,  1918 
and  1919. 
U.  S.  Treasury  Department: 

"Anchorage  Grounds  for  the  Delaware  River  between  Philadelphia 
and  Newcastle  and  Rules  and  Regulations  Relating  Thereto." 
Government  Printing  Office,  August,  1918. 

"Anchorage  Grounds  for  the  Port  of  New  York  and  Rules  and  Regu- 
lations Relating  Thereto."  Government  Printing  Office,  February, 
1919. 


214  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

"Rules    for    the    St.    Mary's    River."      Government    Printing    Office, 

February,  1919. 

"Rules  and  Regulations  Governing  Anchorage  Grounds  in  Hampton 
Roads  and  the  Harbors  of  Norfolk  and  Newport  News."  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  June,  1918. 

U.  S.  Shipping  Board,  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation,  San  Francisco 
Branch:  "Loading  Instructions"  (For  grain.)  San  Francisco, 
1919. 

VON  SCHWARTZ,  DR.,  Fire  and  Explosion  Risks,  translated  by  Charles 
T.  C.  Salter.  Charles  Griffin  &  Co.,  London,  1904. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

STOWAGE  FOR  SECURITY1 

Stowage  must  be  carefully  done  if  danger  and  damage  are  to  be 
eliminated.  Many  vessels  are  lost  by  improper  stowage  2  and  thou- 
sands of  dollars'  worth  of  claims  for  damage  to  cargo  are  annually 
paid  by  steamship  operators.  This  phase  of  the  stowage  question  is 
of  such  human  and  financial  interest  that  it  has  been  rather  exten- 
sively discussed  and  there  are  several  good  books  on  the  subject  (see 
references  at  end  of  chapter).  It  will  only  be  necessary,  therefore, 
to  state  the  general  principles  involved. 

DAMAGE  TO  SHIP  OR  CREW 

Stowage  will  result  in  danger  of  loss  of  the  vessel  if  (a)  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  cargo  is  not  put  in  the  proper  place,  (b)  the  work 
is  so  carelessly  done  that  the  cargo  will  shift,  and  (c)  proper  safe- 
guards are  not  thrown  about  dangerous  cargo. 

Improper  Position  of  the  Center  of  Gravity. — The  proper 
point  for  the  center  of  gravity  varies  with  the  vessel  and  the  cargo. 
No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down;  in  each  case  the  shipowner  or 
master  must  follow  his  own  knowledge  and  judgment.  However, 
it  is  possible  to  point  out  some  ways  in  which  the  master  may  go 
wrong. 

If  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  cargo  is  too  high,  the  vessel  will 
be  liable  to  capsize.  The  beam  and  the  freeboard  help  to  determine 
the  stability  of  the  vessel,  but  the  position  of  the  center  of  gravity 

1  By  Thomas  R.  Taylor. 

2  News    dispatches    to-day    (January    19,    1920)    state    that    the    British 
steamer  Yarmouth   (725  tons)   is  sinking  off  the  New  Jersey  coast,  with  the 
forward  ballast  tank  leaking  into  the  engine  room.     It  left  New  York  on 
January  17,  with  a  heavy  list  to  starboard,  owing  to  the  haste  with  which 
longshoremen  loaded  the  cargo  of  $2,000,000  worth  of  liquors  in  an  effort  to 
get  it  out  of  the  country  before  the  law  forbidding  transportation  of  liquor 
went  into  effect.     There  is   little   doubt  but  that  careless  stowage   was  re- 
sponsible for  the  loss. 

215 


216 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


is  the  most  important  factor.  If  the  center  of  gravity  is  low  there 
will  be  a  strong  force  tending  to  return  the  ship  to  a  vertical  position 
after  it  has  been  inclined  by  wave  action.  If  it  is  high,  the  force  will 
be  weaker;  and  if  it  is  too  high  there  will  be  no  return  movement 
and  the  vessel  will  roll  over.  Figure  84  shows  stability  curves  for 
a  vessel  under  three  conditions  of  load.  The  length  of  the  "righting 
arm"  expresses  the  power  of  the  ship  to  right  itself.  It  will  be  noted 


L0/)Q 


FIG.  84. 

that  this  vessel  will  be  stable  at  all  angles  to  which  it  probably  will 
be  inclined.  If,  however,  the  vessel  in  its  "coal  burned"  condition 
were  thrown  to  an  angle  of  about  75  degrees  there  would  be  no 
righting  arm,  and  capsizing  would  immediately  take  place.  Such 
curves  are  supplied  to  the  shipowner  by  the  architect  or  builder,  and 
should  be  placed  in  the  possession  of  the  master.  This  officer  should 
be  able  to  interpret  the  curves  and  to  construct  new  ones  for  each 
different  load  condition. 

If  the  center  of  gravity  is  very  low  the  righting  force  will  be 
so  great  that  the  vessel  will  be  brought  up  with  a  jerk,  carried 
beyond  the  vertical  position,  and  will  then  oscillate  or  "roll''  until 
equilibrium  is  established.  There  is  absolutely  no  danger  of  capsiz- 
ing, but  there  is  danger  that  the  excessive  rolling  will  cause  sea- 
sickness of  passengers  and  crew,  chafing  and  shifting  of  cargo,  strain 
of  the  vessel,  and  perhaps  the  breakage  of  parts  and  the  tearing  out 
of  the  masts.  A  ship  in  that  condition  is  said  to  be  "stiff,"  as  con- 
trasted to  "crank,"  which  is  the  term  used  to  express  an  unstable  con- 
dition. "Stiffness"  is  to  be  avoided  on  passenger  steamers  and  sail- 
ing vessels  especially.  The  great  passenger  liners  are  so  constructed 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  make  them  "stiff,"  and  with  such 
vessels  the  master  must  use  especial  precaution  to  avoid  raising  the 
center  of  gravity  to  a  danger  point.  The  master  of  the  smaller 


STOWAGE  FOR  SECURITY  217 

vessel  should  place  a  part  of  the  "dead-weight,"  or  heavy,  cargo  high 
in  the  hold  or  in  the  between-decks  in  order  to  raise  the  center  of 
gravity.  In  loading  steel  or  iron,  for  example,  about  one-third  of  the 
total  weight  should  be  placed  between  decks. 

Rolling  may  also  be  reduced  somewhat  by  the  movement  of 
weight  into  the  wings,  but  this  method  is  in  most  cases  more  difficult 
of  application  than  the  first. 

In  the  future,  the  master  will  probably  have  but  little  cause  to 
worry  over  the  matter  of  excessive  rolling,  because  it  seems  quite 
probable  that  there  will  be  a  wide  adoption  of  the  "gyro-stabilizer," 
which  keeps  the  vessel  on  an  even  keel. 

If  the  center  of  gravity  is  to  one  side  of  the  longitudinal  axis  of 
flotation,  the  vessel  will  be  given  a  "list."  Some  vessels  have  a 
list  when  empty  because  of  faulty  construction ;  many  more  are  given 
a  list  by  loading  more  weight  on  one  side  of  the  keel  than  on  the  other. 
A  small  list  is  not  dangerous,  although  it  results  in  retardation  or 
speed.  In  fact,  some  vessels,  having  more  bunker  space  on  one  side, 
are  started  off  with  a  list  purposely,  with  the  understanding  that  the 
stokers  will  use  the  coal  out  of  the  low  side  first  and  thus  bring  it 
to  an  even  keel  quickly.  A  heavy  list,  however,  is  very  dangerous, 
for  it  sets  up  serious  strains  that  may  cause  leakage,  and  it  alters 
stability  so  greatly  that  the  vessel  may  capsize  at  small  angles  of 
inclination.  It  is  not  difficult  to  avoid  list  at  the  start  of  the  voyage. 
The  cargo  spaces  on  opposite  sides  of  the  keel  are  almost  equal,  and 
if  goods  having  approximately  the  same  stowage  factor  are  loaded 
on  each  side  there  is  little  danger.  Any  list  that  does  develop  during 
loading  is  easily  discovered  and  should  be  corrected  at  once.  A  list 
may  develop  at  sea  owing  to  use  of  fuel  or  stores,  shifting  of  cargo 
or  leakage.  This  is  also  easily  detected,  but  is  not  so  readily  recti- 
fied. It  may  be  necessary  to  send  the  crew  into  the  hold  to  move  the 
cargo  or  even  to  throw  some  of  it  overboard.  Some  step  should  be 
taken  in  each  case  where  the  list  is  over  4  degrees. 

The  longitudinal  position  of  the  center  of  gravity  is  also  of 
great  importance.  If  it  is  too  far  forward  the  bow  will  be  sub- 
merged so  deeply  that  it  will  not  ride  the  waves  easily,  while  the 
stern  will  perhaps  be  elevated  to  such  a  point  that  the  propeller  and 
rudder  will  not  perform  properly.  At  the  bow  and  stern  of  each 
vessel  there  are  marks  to  show  the  "draft"  or  the  depth  to  which  the 
hull  is  sunk  in  the  water.  "Trim"  is  the  difference  between  the  fore 


218  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

and  the  aft  drafts,  and  a  vessel  is  said  to  be  "in  trim"  when  the  two 
drafts  are  the  same.  A  vessel  sails  most  efficiently  when  it  is  in  trim 
or  when  it  has  a  slight  "drag,"  that  is,  when  the  stern  is  a  little 
lower  than  the  bow.  The  raised  quarter-deck  vessel  was  designed  to 
provide  a  greater  cargo  capacity  aft  than  forward,  in  order  that  a 
"drag"  might  easily  be  obtained. 

While  in  port  the  trim  can  be  gauged  by  reading  the  drafts,  and 
any  necessary  correction  should  be  made  at  once  to  prevent  damage 
by  strain.  On  the  voyage,  trim  may  be  altered  by  use  of  fuel  and 
provisions,  by  shifting  of  cargo,  or  through  some  other  cause,  and  it 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  tell  what  the  alteration  is.  For  this  reason, 
vessels  should  be  fitted  with  "pneumercators"  or  some  other  instru- 
ment that  will  permit  the  master  to  read  the  trim  at  any  time. 

The  ship  may  be  in  trim  and  yet  be  liable  to  serious  damage 
because  of  the  improper  longitudinal  distribution  of  the  load.  If  all 
the  weight  is  placed  at  the  two  ends  and  none  in  the  center,  the 
vessel  will  "hog"  or  take  a  permanent  shape  in  which  its  ends  are 
lower  than  its  midship  section.  If  all  the  weight  is  concentrated 
amidships,  "buckling"  may  result,  and  the  vessel  will  become 
"sway-backed."  Either  result  is  to  be  avoided  because  of  the  unde- 
sirable effect  on  the  sailing  efficiency,  strength,  and  beauty  of  the 
vessel.  Yet  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  ships  that  have  been  "hogged" 
or  "buckled."  In  many  cases  these  results  have  followed  from 
strains  set  up  during  the  loading  process.  Because  of  the  longitu- 
dinal division  of  the  cargo  space  by  bulkheads  into  holds,  it  is  easy 
to  acquire  the  erroneous  idea  that  each  hold  is  a  unit  in  itself,  and 
that  the  loading  of  one  hold  while  others  are  empty  can  have  no 
effect  on  the  ship  as  a  whole.  Many  vessels,  especially  those  loading 
bulk  dead-weight,  are  seriously  strained  and  deformed  by  stowage  of 
this  kind.  It  must  always  be  remembered  that  the  weight  must  be 
uniformly  distributed  in  the  holds  at  all  times. 

One  of  the  most  puzzling  problems  is  that  of  maintaining  the 
center  of  gravity  at  the  proper  place  when  the  vessel  is  loading  and 
discharging  cargo  at  several  ports.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  dis- 
tribute cargo  for  the  different  ports  in  such  a  way  that  all  of  it  can  be 
easily  removed  and  that  the  vessel  is  not  out  of  trim  or  instable  on 
at  least  one  of  the  "legs"  of  its  voyage.  The  best  judgment  of  the 
stevedore  and  master  is  required  to  plan  a  stowage  that  will  approach 
the  ideal.  In  some  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  rearrange  the  stowage 


STOWAGE  FOR  SECURITY  219 

after  discharge  at  one  port.  This,  however,  is  a  costly  operation  and 
should  be  followed  only  as  a  last  resort.  Figure  83,  showing  the 
stowage  plan  of  a  vessel  discharging  at  three  ports,  illustrates  some 
of  the  principles  involved. 

Shifting  of  Cargo. — Besides  the  damage  caused  to  its  constitu- 
ent units,  shifting  of  cargo  may  result  in  strain  and  breakage  of 
parts  and  in  a  new  and  dangerous  position  of  the  center  of  gravity 
of  the  cargo.  If  the  cargo  moves  downward,  decks,  stanchions, 
tank  tops,  and  shell  are  in  danger,  and  the  new  position  of  the  weights 
may  cause  excessive  rolling.  If  the  cargo  moves  forward  or  aft,  the 
bulkheads  may  be  broken  and  the  vessel  will  be  put  out  of  trim.  If 
the  cargo  moves  athwartship,  the  sides  may  be  crushed  and,  in  almost 
any  event,  a  list  will  be  developed.  Perhaps  the  most  common  type 
of  shifting  on  a  large  scale  is  transverse  or  athwartship  shifting, 
caused  by  rolling  of  the  vessel  from  side  to  side.  The  resultant  list 
may  be  so  "heavy"  that  the  vessel  becomes  instable  and  may  capsize. 

Losses  at  sea  due  to  shifting  have  been  so  excessive  3  that  many 
especial  precautionary  measures  have  been  adopted.  This  is  best 
illustrated  in  the  grain-carrying  trade.  No  economical  way  of  com- 
pressing grain  into  the  hold  is  known.  During  the  voyage  the  un- 
compressed grain  settles,  and  a  hold  that  was  completely  full  at  the 
loading  port  becomes  partially  empty.  This  empty  space  permits 
the  grain  to  shift,  and  grain  movements  begin  at  a  relatively  low 
angle  of  inclination.  To  avoid  danger  from  this  source,  two  pre- 
cautions are  taken :  In  the  first  place,  the  holds  are  subdivided  by  the 
erection  of  "shifting  boards"  in  order  to  confine  the  shift  to  a  small 
amount  of  grain  and  to  a  small  area.  These  "shifting  boards"  are 
of  different  construction  and  their  number  varies  with  the  size  of  the 
hold.  A  common  construction  on  small  cargo  steamers  is  a  2  or 
3  inch  plank  partition  placed  fore-and-aft  over  the  keelson,  and 
braced  with  heavy  timbers  set  against  the  beams  in  the  wings.  The 
second  precaution  taken  is  designed  to  keep  the  holds  full  of  grain  af 
all  times.  This  is  accomplished  by  stowing  some  of  the  bulk  graii, 
above  the  hold  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  feed  into  the  hold  as  the 
grain  there  settles.  In  many  cases  special  receptacles  or  "feeders,/' 


'The  British  Load-Line  Committee  reported  in  1916  that  definite  cause* 
of  loss  were  discoverable  in  57  of  the  92  losses  of  vessels  since  the  revision 
of  the  Tables  of  Freeboard,  and  that  of  the  57  losses,  12,  were  caused  by 
shifting  ot  cargo. 


220  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

are  constructed  for  this  purpose,  and  these  are  placed  either  in  the 
hatch  or  over  the  wings  in  the  between  decks,  or  in  both  places.  The 
Board  of  Trade  of  Great  Britain,  the  boards  of  insurance  under- 
writers in  the  United  States,  and  other  bodies  in  other  countries  have 
issued  regulations  prescribing  exactly  how  the  shifting  boards  and 
feeders  are  to  be  constructed  (see  Chapter  XII).  If  neither  shifting 
boards  nor  feeders  are  used,  a  certain  percentage  of  the  grain  must 
be  bagged,  according  to  these  regulations. 

Subdivision  of  the  cargo  space  is  necessary  if  fluids  are  to  be 
carried  safely.  "For  the  transportation  of  petroleum  and  some- 
times other  oils  in  bulk,  special  'tank  steamers'  have  been  con- 
structed. The  portions  of  the  vessel  used  for  the  stowage  of  the  oil 
are  subdivided  into  small  tanks  by  a  strong  longitudinal  bulkhead 
extending  the  entire  length  of  the  ship  above  the  center  line  of  the 
vessel  and  rising  to  the  uppermost  deck,  and  by  transverse  bulkheads 
spaced  about  24  feet  apart.  When  these  tanks  are  filled  with  oil 
the  fore-and-aft  and  side-to-side  movement  of  the  oil  caused  by  the 
pitching  and  rolling  of  the  vessel  at  sea  is  reduced  to  a  minimum."  4 

In  some  cases  the  principle  of  the  shifting  board  is  adapted  to  the 
stowage  of  other  bulk  cargo  and  of  general  cargo,  but  this  is  rare. 
General  cargo,  if  stowed  at  all  compactly,  is  not  liable  to  shift  seri- 
ously except  in  a  few  special  cases.  The  breaking  of  barrels,  due  to 
pressure  above,  may  permit  the  sudden  movement  of  a  large  number 
of  barrels  with  disastrous  effect  to  the  cargo  and  vessel.  This  is 
prevented  only  by  careful  stowage.  If  the  barrels  are  tiered  to  a 
great  height  planks  should  be  laid  over  one  or  more  tiers  to  distribute 
the  pressure  brought  by  the  tiers  above.  In  several  cases,  general 
cargo  has  been  known  to  break  through  a  partition  into  a  space  that 
was  left  vacant  for  some  reason.  Such  partitions  must  be  strongly 
constructed. 

Various  measures  are  adopted  to  prevent  shifting  of  dead-weight 
cargo  that  does  not  fill  the  space  allotted  to  it.  Railway  iron,  heavy 
logs,  etc.,  are  bound  with  chains,  which  are  then  fastened  to  parts  of 
the  vessel.  Similar  methods  can  be  used  for  any  cargo  whose  units 
are  large.  If  the  units  are  small,  they  can  be  covered  by  boards, 
tarpaulins  or  matting,  and  roped  down.  Large  and  heavy  pieces 
can  be  "tombed"  down  or  secured  by  shores  set  against  the  beams. 

4  Johnson  and  Huebner,  Principles  of  Ocean  Transportation.  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1918,  43,  44. 


STOWAGE  FOR  SECURITY  221 

Dangerous  Goods. — Almost  any  cargo  is  dangerous  to  some 
degree,  but  there  are  only  a  few  commodities  that  are  so  destructive 
as  to  be  ordinarily  classed  as  "dangerous  goods."  The  following 
classification  is  adopted  from  that  given  by  Aeby,  a  Belgian  chemist. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  DANGEROUS  GOODS 

I.     Inflammable  Goods : 

1.  Spontaneously  inflammable. 

2.  Inflammable  when  heated,  without  the  presence  of 

flame. 

3.  Inflammable  in  the  presence  of  flame. 

4.  Not  ordinarily  inflammable,   but  which  under  cer- 

tain conditions  may  give  off  combustible  or  ex- 
plosive gas. 

5.  Producing  inflammable  dust. 

6.  Generating  heat  when  impregnating  organic  prod- 

ucts. 

7.  Taking  fire  by  sparks. 
II.     Explosive  Goods  : 

1.  Spontaneously  explosive. 

2.  Explosive  by  fire,  friction,  shocks,  blows. 

3.  Explosive  when  mixed  with  other  bodies. 

4.  Explosive  by  decomposition  and  discoloring. 
III.     Corrosive  and  Discoloring  Goods : 

1.  Corrosive   solids    (little   danger    unless   moistened). 

2.  Corrosive  liquids. 

3.  Producing  corrosive  or  discoloring  vapors. 
IV,     Evil  Smelling  and  Asphyxiating  Goods  : 

1.  Having  a  troublesome  smell. 

2.  Producing  asphyxiating  or  anesthetic  vapors. 
V.     Poisonous  Goods : 

1.  Poisonous  solids  and  liquids. 

2.  Producing  poisonous  gases. 
VI.     Miscellaneous  Dangerous  Goods  : 

1.  Tainting. 

2.  Hydroscopic,  or  water  attracting. 

3.  Deliquescent,  or  giving  off  moisture. 

4.  Having  a  low  freezing  or  melting  point. 

5.  Acting  to  feed  flames. 

6.  Dusty. 


222  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Any  of  these  classes  of  goods  may  cause  damage  to  the  vessel, 
endanger  the  health  or  life  of  members  of  the  crew  or  passengers,  or 
destroy  other  cargo.  The  inflammable  and  explosive  goods  are  of  the 
greatest  danger  to  the  vessel  itself.  Many  marine  losses  are  due  to 
fire  starting  in  the  cargo.  Special  precaution  must  be  used  in 
handling  goods  that  are  spontaneously  inflammable  or  explosive,  and 
this  class  includes  almost  all  animal  and  vegetable  products  in  bulk, 
as  well  as  many  other  organic  compounds.  Coal,  grain,  fibers, 
manures,  lampblack,  clothing,  and  varnishes  are  some  of  the  more 
common  commercial  products  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion.  The 
proper  prevention  is  in  most  cases  sufficient  ventilation,  for  com- 
bustion is  in  almost  all  cases  preceded  by  heating  and  the  removal 
of  the  heat  will  probably  keep  the  product  at  a  temperature  below 
the  combustion  point.  The  ship  operator  should  become  familiar 
with  the  available  information  on  the  subject.5 

Although  inflammable  and  explosive  cargo  is  of  the  greatest 
danger  to  the  vessel  in  causing  total  destruction,  the  other  classes 
of  dangerous  cargo  will  damage  the  vessel  in  many  cases.  Corrosive 
goods  have  an  especially  deleterious  effect  on  metal  parts,  and  have 
been  known  to  cause  leakage.  Evil  smelling  and  asphyxiating  goods 
leave  odors  in  the  hold  which  must  be  removed,  sometimes  at  great 
expense,  before  other  cargo  can  be  loaded.  Poisonous  goods  are 
of  especial  danger  to  the  crew,  and  there  are  other  goods,  which, 
although  not  poisonous  themselves,  may  produce  a  condition  favor- 
able to  the  growth  and  spread  of  germs  of  disease.  The  trim  and 
stability  of  the  vessel  are  affected  by  articles  that  gain  or  lose 
weight,  by  adding  or  losing  water,  on  the  voyage.  Dust  from  coal, 
iron  ore,  and  other  products,  discolors  the  timbers  and  destroys  the 
beauty  of  the  fittings  in  many  cases. 

DAMAGE  TO  CARGO 
Damages  to  cargo  may  be  caused  by: 

1.  Dangerous  goods  of  the  classes  described  above. 

2.  Moisture. 

3.  Extremes  of  temperature. 

4.  Chafing  and  crushing. 

5  See  Von    Schwartz,    Fire    and    Explosion    Risks.      See    also    Taylor, 
Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes. 


STOWAGE  FOR  SECURITY  223 

5.  Lack   of   ventilation. 

6.  Pilfering. 

7.  Vermin. 

8.  Wear  and  tear  in  transfer. 

Dangerous  Goods. — The  kinds  of  goods  that  may  cause  injury 
to  other  goods  are  almost  innumerable.  Inflammable  and  explo- 
sive articles  may  destroy  the  entire  cargo  and  the  vessel,  or  may 
damage  a  part  of  the  cargo  by  fire.  Corrosive  and  discoloring 
goods,  such  as  acids  and  chloride  of  lime,  have  serious  effects  on 
metals,  colored  cloths,  and  other  commodities  with  which  they 
are  in  close  contact.  Odors  from  fertilizers,  vegetable  and  animal 
products,  oils,  barks,  chemicals,  scents,  spices,  soaps,  and  many 
other  commodities  will  injure  foodstuffs  particularly;  and  the  mas- 
ter must  learn  to  stow  malodorous  goods  apart  from  foodstuffs  and 
in  a  dry  and  well-ventilated  place.  Foodstuffs  and  live  cargo  are 
also  injured  by  poisonous  goods,  and  these  should  not  be  accepted 
for  transportation  unless  they  are  well  packed.  Dust  damage  is  far 
more  serious  than  is  generally  supposed.  If  it  does  not  actually 
ruin  the  articles  upon  which  it  falls,  it  at  least  gives  these  an  un- 
sightly appearance  which  leads  the  consignee  to  file  damage  claims. 

In  the  scope  of  this  book  it  is  impossible  to  make  an  adequate 
presentation  of  the  way  in  which  damage  from  dangerous  goods  may 
be  avoided,  for  the  method  differs  in  almost  every  case.  The  master 
is  guided  to  a  large  extent  by  the  laws  regulating  the  carriage  of 
such  commodities  (see  Chapter  XII),  and  by  his  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience. Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes  should  be  consulted  by  any  one 
handling  a  variety  of  cargoes,  and  each  operator  should  maintain 
a  list  of  dangerous  goods,  showing  their  characteristics  and  the  best 
methods  of  stowing  them. 

Moisture. — Even  a  slight  amount  of  moisture  may  cause  dis- 
coloring, decay,  rust,  fermenting,  chemical  change,  or  odorization. 
It  aids  spontaneous  combustion,  and  directly  or  indirectly  damages 
almost  every  class  of  goods.  Moreover,  moisture  damage  is  particu- 
larly difficult  to  avoid  because  water  in  various  forms  is  found  at 
almost  every  point  of  the  voyage.  Here  again  the  action  of  the  mas- 
ter and  stevedore  must  be  governed  by  common  sense  and  sound 
judgment.  Precautions  must  be  taken  first  at  the  time  of  loading. 
The  vessel's  holds  must  be  carefully  prepared  for  the  cargo.  Leaks 


224  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

should  be  repaired,  the  steam  pipes  must  be  looked  over,  rivet  holes 
filled,  decks  cleaned,  water  passageways,  scuppers,  and  limbers 
cleaned,  and  the  pumps  must  be  tried  out  and  repaired  if  necessary. 
In  almost  all  cases  dunnage  must  be  laid  on  the  ceiling  to  protect 
the  cargo  from  bilge  water  and  leakage  from  the  tank  tops.  If  the 
goods  to  be  stowed  are  especially  susceptible  of  damage  other  pre- 
cautions must  be  taken.  Thus,  a  hold  properly  prepared  for  flour 
should  have  the  beams  and  pillars  muffled  with  canvas  or  matting  to 
decrease  the  probability  of  condensation  of  moisture  on  these  metal 
parts  and  the  falling  of  the  drops  upon  the  cargo. 

After  the  hold  is  made  as  dry  and  as  water-tight  as  possible, 
loading  may  begin,  unless  the  weather  is  stormy.  Goods  in  bales  and 
sacks,  machinery,  stationery,  steel  and  iron,  and  other  commodities 
that  may  be  damaged  by  rain  should  not  be  transferred  during  wet 
weather.  Some  classes  of  goods  should  not  be  taken  out  of  the 
transit  shed  if  there  is  a  heavy  fog.  These  principles,  of  course, 
apply  also  to  discharge. 

All  wet  goods  should  be  stowed  underneath  or  apart  from 
dry  goods.  Wet  goods  include  liquids,  some  solids,  such  as  butter 
that  may  become  liquid,  and  any  product  that  contains  a  relatively 
large  amount  of  moisture.  They  should  be  stowed  in  holds  to  them- 
selves or  should  be  separated  from  the  dry  goods  by  dunnage. 

After  the  cargo  is  stowed  the  hatches  should  be  battened  down 
tightly  and  covered  with  tarpaulin,  unless  ventilation  is  necessary. 
Good  circulation  of  dry  air  through  the  cargo  will  help  to  prevent 
"sweating"  and  the  accumulation  of  moisture.  "Sweating"  is  caused 
by  high  temperature  in  the  hold,  and  it  may  damage  many  kinds  of 
commodities.  During  the  voyage  no  water  must  be  allowed  to  leak 
through  the  hatches  or  decks,  and  the  bilge  water  must  be  removed  by 
pumping.  If  possible,  the  cargo  should  be  inspected  to  see  that 
moisture  is  not  entering  and  that  any  present  is  being  removed  by 
the  pumps. 

Extremes  of  Temperature. — There  is  very  little  danger  from 
excessive  cold  on  the  voyage,  for  shipments  that  will  carry  safely  by 
land  are  not  liable  to  freeze  at  sea.  Ocean  temperatures  and  espe- 
cially hold  temperatures  are  relatively  high,  and  for  this  reason 
many  coastwise  shipments  are  routed  by  water  instead  of  railroad 
during  the  winter  months.  Occasionally  very  low  temperatures  are 
encountered  at  sea  and  damage  may  be  done  to  alcohol  solutions, 


STOWAGE  FOR  SECURITY  225 

liquors,  or  other  articles  containing  a  high  percentage  of  water.  The 
only  precaution  that  can  be  taken  against  such  loss  is  to  stow  the 
goods  in  the  warmest  part  of  the  hold,  preferably  near  the  boiler 
rooms. 

The  danger  from  high  temperatures  is  much  greater,  because 
tropical  voyages  are  more  frequent  than  voyages  in  high  latitudes 
and  because  the  heat  from  the  fires  and  from  steaming  cargo  adds  to 
the  air  temperature.  High  temperature  may  cause  ullage  of  casks ; 
melting  of  tallow,  wax,  and  similar  articles ;  spontaneous  combus- 
tion ;  decay  of  many  vegetable  and  animal  products ;  chemical 
changes,  and  increased  fire  hazards,  especially  if  the  articles  carried 
give  off  inflammable  or  explosive  gases.  Rum  is  almost  the  only 
commodity  that  is  improved  by  heat,  while  there  are  many  that  are 
totally  destroyed  by  excessive  temperature.  There  are  a  number  of 
precautions  that  may  be  adopted.  The  first  is  to  refuse  to  accept 
for  transportation  anything  which  may  be  damaged  by  temperatures 
that  can  be  reasonably  expected,  unless  it  can  be  carried  in  refrigerat- 
ing space.  The  second  precaution  is  to  stow  goods  that  may  be  dam- 
aged by  heat  in  the  coolest  parts  of  the  vessel — away  from  the  boiler 
room,  engines  and  steam  pipes,  near  the  bow,  and  in  well-ventilated 
places,  such  as  the  between-decks  and  the  hatchways.  The  third 
precaution  is  to  provide  ventilation  throughout  the  cargo,  and  the 
fourth  is  to  keep  dry.  those  goods  that  may  decay,  ferment,  or 
heat  spontaneously.  Heat  alone  may  not  cause  spontaneous  heating 
of  vegetable  or  animal  products,  but  a  combination  of  heat  and 
moisture  probably  will.  This  spontaneous  heating  will  damage  the 
goods  so  heated  and  perhaps  other  products  in  the  vicinity. 

Chafing  and  Crushing. — Chafing  and  crushing,  if  excessive, 
will  damage  almost  every  commodity.  Chafe  injures  fruits,  cloths, 
glassware,  machinery,  and  rope  particularly.  Crushing  may  result  in 
the  loss  of  liquids  or  of  small  articles  from  their  containers,  and  will 
expose  other  commodities  to  the  weather,  moisture,  dirt  and  theft. 
Both  chafing  and  crushing  are  caused  largely  by  movements  of  the 
cargo;  therefore  they  cannot  be  eliminated  altogether  if  rough 
weather  is  encountered,  but  they  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  by 
careful  stowage.  The  stowage  must  be  compact.  Units  of  cargo 
must  be  placed  as  closely  as  possible  and  any  "broken  stowage" 
should  be  filled  with  smaller  units  or  with  dunnage.  If  it  is  impos- 
sible to  fill  in  all  the  interstices  the  units  should  be  wedged,  blocked, 


226  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

or  tombed  so  as  to  prevent  their  movement.  In  some  cases  it  is 
advisable  to  nail  or  otherwise  fasten  together  a  number  of  units.  In 
other  cases,  especially  where  there  is  a  deep  hold,  there  should  be 
some  divisions  made  between  the  different  parts  of  the  cargo,  the 
divisions  being  complete  enough  to  keep  the  cargo  of  one  section 
from  moving  into  any  space  left  vacant  in  another  section.  This 
may  be  done  by  laying  down  a  floor  of  boards.  Movements  on  a 
large  scale  can  also  be  prevented  by  constructing  additional  bulk- 
heads or  other  partitions,  as  is  done  in  the  case  of  grain.  The  bedding 
of  locomotives  in  bales  of  hay,  described  on  page  199,  is  a  good 
illustration  of  the  methods  employed. 

A  great  deal  of  attention  must  be  given  to  choosing  the  safest 
place  for  stowage  of  goods  particularly  susceptible  to  damage  by 
crushing  or  chafing.  The  bow  is  to  be  avoided  because  the  pitching  is 
felt  more  there.  The  lower  parts  of  the  hold  must  also  be  avoided, 
for  the  great  weight  of  the  upper  tiers  will  cause  crushing.  Fragile 
cases,  barrels,  etc.,  should  not  be  stowed  against  the  sharp  edges  of 
beams,  stanchions,  and  other  parts  of  the  ship. 

One  of  the  most  important  precautions  is  to  refuse  to  stow  any 
goods  that  are  not  properly  packed.  Transportation  should  be  re- 
fused altogether,  or  the  fragile  packages  should  be  repaired  at  the 
pier. 

Lack  of  Ventilation. — Lack  of  ventilation  causes  the  accumula- 
tion of  moisture  and  heat  and  the  strengthening  of  odors  as  pointed 
out  in  previous  paragraphs.  A  capable  officer  should  be  placed  in 
charge  of  ventilation  of  cargo,  fuel,  and  crew  quarters  during  the 
voyage.  Hatches  should  be  kept  open  in  clear  weather  if  the 
cargo  gives  off  obnoxious  odors  or  is  liable  to  spontaneous  combus- 
tion. The  ventilators  should  be  so  adjusted  in  height  and  direction 
that  a  good  circulation  of  air  is  provided  at  all  times. 

Pilfering. — Upon  delivery  many  consignments  are  discovered  to 
be  short,  and  the  shipowner  may  have  to  pay  the  damage  claim. 
The  fact  that  he  has  pilferage  insurance  should  not  prevent  him  from 
doing  everything  possible  to  stop  thievery.  Pilfering  begins  at  the 
pier  and  perhaps  most  of  it  occurs  there ;  therefore,  the  first  essential 
is  a  good  watching  system  on  the  pier.  It  is  not  enough  to  station 
a  kind  old  loafer  at  the  entrance.  There  should  be  a  check  on  each  in- 
dividual who  enters  the  pier  and  upon  his  actions  while  he  is  there. 
Any  one  who  has  visited  piers  in  this  country  knows  how  easy  it  is  to 


STOWAGE  FOR  SECURITY  227 

steal  things  if  one  has  the  desire.  In  many  foreign  countries  the 
danger  of  pilferage  is  even  greater  because  the  people  are  poorer. 

The  longshoremen  must  be  carefully  watched  by  their  foremen. 
It  is  easy  to  open  a  package  that  has  been  weakened  by  rough  han- 
dling, or  that  was  not  securely  packed  in  the  first  place,  and  to  slip 
into  a  pocket  a  bar  of  soap,  a  piece  of  jewelry,  a  tool,  or  some  other 
small  and  desirable  article.  The  best  preventive  is  to  keep  the  men 
busy  at  all  times  and  to  impress  on  the  foremen  the  necessity  of  being 
alert.  In  foreign  countries,  one  of  the  ship's  officers  should  be  on 
watch. 

Pilfering  by  the  crew  is  relatively  unimportant,  but  this  also 
should  be  guarded  against.  Valuable  goods  should  be  stowed  in  a 
locker  or  strong  room,  the  key  to  which  is  held  by  an  officer.  Liquors 
and  other  attractive  products  must  be  stowed  in  a  place  difficult  of 
access.  Frequent  inspections  should  be  made  of  the  crew's  quarters 
and  of  the  cargo  that  can  be  reached. 

Vermin. — There  is  always  some  damage  from  vermin  during 
the  course  of  the  voyage.  Conditions  on  shipboard  favor  vermin, 
because  of  the  heat  and  moisture  in  the  hold  and  the  dirt  that  it  is 
impossible  to  eradicate  altogether.  Even  if  the  vessel  is  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  disinfected  after  the  discharge  of  cargo,  the  new  cargo 
may  introduce  another  crop  of  vermin.  The  master  therefore  encoun- 
ters several  perplexing  problems.  He  must,  if  possible,  kill  all 
vermin  before  cargo  is  loaded;  he  must  not  accept  infested  cargo  or 
allow  vermin  to  enter  in  any  other  way;  and  he  must  prevent  the 
increase  in  number  and  the  spread  of  vermin  during  the  voyage.  If, 
in  spite  of  these  precautions,  there  is  an  increase,  he  must  endeavor 
to  confine  their  ravages  to  a  small  part  of  the  cargo. 

The  actual  methods  to  be  used  on  rats  can  be  given  to  illustrate 
the  principles  involved.  Rats  are  the  most  destructive  vermin 
encountered  in  the  shipping  world.  All  ships  should  be  disinfected 
with  sulphur  dioxide  or  cyanide  gas,  preferably  the  latter,  periodi- 
cally. Other  rats  should  be  denied  access  by  fending  the  ship  from 
the  wharf  by  floating  fenders,  by  placing  rat  funnels  on  all  lines  to 
the  shore,  by  raising  the  gangplank  at  night,  and  by  inspecting  all 
cargo  before  it  is  placed  on  board.  The  ravages  of  any  rats  that 
remain  or  are  admitted  can  be  reduced  somewhat  by  placing  stores 
and  valuable  cargo  in  rat-proof  compartments  or  by  surrounding 


228  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

them  with  cargo  that  is  obnoxious  to  rats;  by  keeping  a  cat  or  rat 
terrier ;  by  using  poison  or  traps,  and  by  providing  the  rats  with  food 
and  water  so  that  they  will  not  attack  the  cargo.  In  destroying  all 
sorts  of  vermin,  the  best  measures  are  those  that  are  preventive. 
Cleanliness  is  the  first  prerequisite.  Careful  inspections  will  disclose 
the  appearance  of  vermin,  and  measures  should  be  taken  at  once  to 
stamp  it  out. 

Wear  and  Tear  in  Transfer. — The  damage  that  may  be  done 
to  cargo  by  tearing  of  hooks,  cutting  and  crushing  of  the  sling,  smash- 
ing of  the  carelessly  handled  draft,  transfer  in  wet  weather,  rough 
treatment  on  the  pier  and  in  the  hold,  and  by  other  causes  have 
been  sufficiently  discussed  in  the  chapters  on  transfer.  The  ship- 
owner is,  of  course,  liable  to  damage  incurred  in  transfer  and  should 
exercise  every  precaution  to  avoid  it.  There  is  little  excuse  for  dam- 
age of  this  sort  at  modern  ports,  but  some  is  unavoidable  at  ports 
lacking  proper  harbor  facilities. 


REFERENCES 

AEBY,  JULIUS,  Dangerous  Goods.   Privately  published,  Antwerp,   1910. 

CARVER,  THOS.  G.,  A  Treatise  of  the  Law  Relating  to  the  Carriage  of 
Goods  by  Sea.  (6th  ed.  by  James  S.  Henderson.)  Stevens  & 
Sons,  Ltd.,  London,  1918. 

Great  Britain  Board  of  Trade:  "Report  of  Committee  on  Load  Lines 
of  Merchant  Ships  and  Carriage  of  Deck  Cargoes  of  Wood  Goods." 
London,  1916. 

HILLCOAT,  CHAS.  H.,  Notes  on  the  Stowage  of  Ships.  Imray,  Lowrie, 
Norie  &  Wilson,  London,  1918. 

HUGHES,  CHAS.  H.,  Handbook  of  Ship  Calculations,  Construction,  and 
Operation.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1918. 

Institute  of  Naval  Architects:    "Transactions." 

International  Engineering  Congress:     "Transactions." 

JOHNSON,  E.  R.,  AND  HUEBNER,  G.  G.,  Principles,  of  Ocean  Trans- 
portation. D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1918. 

MURPHY,  JOHN  McL.,  AND  JEFFERS,  W.  N.,  Nautical  Routine  and 
Stowage.  Henry  Spear,  New  York,  1849. 

STEVENS,  ROBT.  W.,  On  the  Stowage  of  Ships  and  Their  Cargoes. 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  London,  1894. 

TAYLOR,  THOS.  R.,  Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes.  Government  Printing 
Office,  1920. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce:  "Packing  for  Ex- 
port." Miscellaneous  Series  No.  5.  Government  Printing  Office, 
1919. 


STOWAGE  FOR  SECURITY  229 

U.  S.  Standardization  Branch,  Purchase,  Storage  and  Traffic  Division, 

General  Staff,  U.   S.  Army: 

Manual  for  Packing  Army  Supplies.     Manuscript. 
Public  Health  Reports,  "Rodent  Destruction  on  Ships,"  by  R.  H.  Creel 
and  F.  Simpson.     Government  Printing  Office,   1917- 

U.  S.  Treasury  Department  Public  Health  and  Marine  Hospital  Serv- 
ice of  the  United  States:  The  Rat  and  Its  Relation  to  the  Public 
Health.  (Various  authors.)  Government  Printing  Office,  1910. 

VON  SCHWARTZ,  DR.,  Fire  and  Explosion  Risks,  translated  by  Charles 
T.  C.  Salter.  Charles  Griffin  &  Co.,  London,  1904. 

WALTON,  THOMAS,  Know  Your  Own  Ship.  Charles  Griffin  &  Co., 
London,  1901. 

WINTER,  WM.  D.,  Marine  Insuranc.,  Its  Principles  and  Practice. 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  New  York,  1919. 

For  additional  references  on  stowage  of  dangerous  goods  see  list  at  end 
of  Chapter  XII. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

CLEARING  THE  WHARVES1 

MOVEMENT  OF  MERCHANDISE  ON  THE  WHARF 

Merchandise  on  a  wharf  must  be  handled  many  times.  The 
problem  confronting  the  wharf  superintendent  is  to  reduce  the 
number  of  handlings  to  a  minimum  and  to  make  each  handling  as 
inexpensive  and  as  rapid  as  possible.  Some  of  these  movements 
may  be  enumerated  as  follows : 

In  the  first  place,  there  is  the  movement  to  and  from  the  pick- 
ing-up  point  opposite  the  ship's  hatch  while  transferring  cargo 
into  the  ship  or  taking  away  cargo  that  has  been  discharged  from  the 
ship.  Beginning  with  discharged  cargo,  the  first  movement  is  to  the 
piles  on  the  wharf  in  which  the  goods  are  sorted  according  to  marks 
and  consignees.  If  adequate  wharf  space  is  available,  piling  and 
tiering  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Each  consignee's  shipment  should 
be  piled  in  a  separate  pile,  all  packages  together  ready  for  further 
movement.  If  errors  are  made  or  if  space  is  not  available,  and  one 
consignment  is  piled  on  top  of  another,  it  is  necessary  later  to  break 
out  these  piles  and  move  them  about  the  wharf.  This  is  all  waste 
that  should  be  eliminated  through  proper  organization  and  proper 
wharf  design.  The  principal  movements  that  follow  sorting  are  ( i ) 
the  delivery  of  goods  to  railroad  cars;  (2)  to  dray;  (3)  to  lighters, 
and  (4)  to  a  warehouse  adjacent  to  the  transit  shed. 

For  short  movement  and  odd  jobs,  within  a  small  radius  of  travel, 
the  hand  truck  will  always  be  the  most  flexible  and  efficient  tool. 
For  longer  distances,  and  for  certain  classes  of  goods,  there  are  con- 
veyors and  tractors  of  various  kinds.  For  distances  of  more  than 
150  or  200  feet  other  mechanical  means  are  necessary,  as  both  the 
hand  truck  and  the  conveyor,  except  in  a  few  instances,  become  un- 
profitable. The  advantages  of  the  hand  truck  for  short  distances  are 
the  rapidity  with  which  it  can  be  loaded  and  unloaded  and  the 
1  By  R.  S.  MacElwee. 

230 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES 


231 


FlG.   85. — HAND  TRUCK. 


small  amount  of  space  that  is  required  for  moving  material  by  this 
means.  It  is  the  old  relation  of  the  terminal  expense  to  the  line  haul 
reduced  to  small  proportion.  For  short  movements  of  a  few  feet,  the 
"terminal  expense"  of  more  compli- 
cated instruments  eats  up  any  ad- 
vantage of  a  more  rapid  movement 
horizontally. 

Hand  Trucks. — Freight  is  han- 
dled several  times  in  loading  and 
discharging  it  to  and  from  the  ship. 
One  of  the  first  instruments  used  is 
the  hand  truck.  Usually  three  men 
are  required  to  operate  this  truck,  one  to  wheel  it,  and  two  to  load 
it.  Wheeling  a  hand  truck  seems  a  simple  operation,  but  really  it  is 
quite  a  knack,  acquired  only  after  considerable  practice. 

There  are  two  positions  in  which 
a  hand  truck  should  repose  when  not 
in  use :  Standing  on  its  wheels  and 
legs  with  handles  parallel  to  the 
floor,  or  standing  on  its  wheels  and 
nose  with  the  handles  in  the  air.  The 
latter  position  is  the  most  conven- 
ient, as  the  stevedore  can  grab  it  by 
the  legs,  wheel  it  to  the  load,  tip  it 

FlG.    86.— IMPROPER   LOADING.  up  Qn  ^  nose?  and  his  hands  will  be 

protected  by  the  handles  while  it  is  being  loaded.  After  it  is  loaded, 
he  shifts  his  hands  to  the  handles,  pulls  it  toward  him  to  a  proper 
balance,  and  wheels  it  to  the  destination.  It  is  not  so  simple  without 
practice. 

To  load  a  hand  truck  with  bags 
grab  the  bags,  one  at  each  end,  and 
throw  them  on  to  the  truck.  The 
first  bag  must  land  on  its  side  on 
the  nose  of  the  truck  (Fig.  85), 
otherwise  it  will  hang  over,  and  the 
sharp  edge  of  the  nose  will  cut 
through  the  bag.  All  other  bags 
must  lie  on  their  small  side  in  order 
that  a  greater  number  may  be  placed 
on  the  truck. 


sugar,  coffee,  etc.,  two  men 


FlG.   87. — PROPER  LOADING. 


232  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

To  load  a  barrel,  tierce,  or  hogshead,  tip  it  slightly,  push  the 
nose  of  the  truck  under  the  edges,  reach  over  with  the  left  hand,  and 
pull  it  with  the  truck  toward  you  to  a  proper  balance,  then  wheel  it 
away.  If  the  load  is  heavy,  another  stevedore  helps  to  push  it  over. 
Flour  or  other  small  barrels  are  loaded  with  one  standing  on  its  end, 
and  another  lying  crosswise  on  top. 

When  loading  boxes,  the  strongest  and  heaviest  are  put  on  the 
truck  first  with  the  frail  ones  on  top.  In  all  cases,  except  with  bales 
of  cotton  and  tierces  of  tobacco,  care  must  be  exercised  when  un- 
loading. The  truck  must  be  allowed  to  come  up  slowly,  permitting 
the  load  to  strike  the  floor  gently,  after  which  the  load  is  tipped 
slightly,  and  the  truck  removed.  Cotton  and  tobacco  may  be  rolled 
off  the  truck  without  damage. 

Electric  Trucks. — There  are  two  schools  of  electric  truck  en- 
thusiasts :  Those  who  advocate  a  tractor  and  trailer  system,  and 
those  who  advocate  a  platform  lift.  The  conclusion  that  may  be 
drawn  is  that  both  systems  are  practical  and  applicable  through 
different  conditions.  The  platform-lift  system  has  the  advantage  of 
greater  flexibility  and  quicker  starting  and  stopping,  that  is,  a  re- 
duced terminal  time,  and  this  advantage  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the 
platform-lift  truck  for  short  hauls.  However,  the  tractors  with 
trailer  platform,  although  they  require  a  little  longer  time  to  hook  up 
and  unhook  at  the  end  of  the  haul,  cover  a  greater  number  of  ton- 
miles  per  man.  There  is  no  reason  why  a  terminal  should  not  be 
equipped  with  both  kinds,  provided  the  platforms  or  the  trailer 
trucks  are  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  platform-lift  truck 
and  the  trailer  truck  can  both  operate.  In  delivery  of  small  con- 
signments to  drays,  the  platform-lift  truck  has  a  distinct  advantage, 
while  in  a  longer  haul  with  larger  consignments  of  goods  the  tractor- 
trailer  system  has  the  advantage.  Some  figures  concerning  the  sav- 
ing of  time  and  expense  by  using  the  electric  trailer  truck  or  other 
similar  devices  are  shown  in  the  following  tables  made  by  L.  H. 
Haight.  These  stop-watch  studies  should  be  a  guide  to  improve- 
ment in  cutting  time  at  various  points  along  the  line  of  operation. 

Telphers. — There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  telphers:  The 
monorail  man  trolley  that  travels  hanging  from  an  overhead  rail, 
and  the  chain  conveyors  that  are  used  in  handling  cotton  in  Mobile 
and  Texas  City,  and  elsewhere,  or  for  handling  frozen  meats  in  Lon- 
don. The  chain  conveyor  is  adapted  only  to  certain  classified  special- 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  233 

ized  packages,  such  as  those  mentioned,  for  which  they  are  specially 
constructed.  It  is  necessary  to  use  the  hand  truck  to  bring  the  arti- 
cles from  the  point  of  deposit  on  the  wharf  to  the  trolley. 

The  telpher  that  operates  on  an  overhead  track  has  been  developed 
to  greater  flexibility  by  the  introduction  of  a  shop-crane  crossover 
track  or  adjustable  loop.  The  telpher  will  run  along  the  tracks  at 
the  side  of  the  shed  until  it  comes  to  the  point  opposite  the  place 
where  it  desires  to  pick  up  or  deposit  merchandise,  when  the  cross- 
over or  loop  track  will  be  run  down  to  this  point  and  by  means  of  a 
switch  the  telpher  or  trolley  will  be  able  to  cross  over  the  bay  on  the 
loop.  This  makes  it  possible  to  cover  every  portion  of  the  floor  space. 
However,  this  equipment  is  expensive.  It  has  been  used  to  very  great 
advantage  in  several  sugar  refineries  and  in  the  municipal  cotton 
warehouses  in  New  Orleans  and  also  in  those  at  Manchester.  The 
cost  of  installation  is  great;  it  is  not  so  flexible  as  it  should  be,  but 
it  has  the  advantage  of  traveling  through  unoccupied  space,  making 
high  tiering  possible,  and  thus  saving  floor  space.  Considerable 
development  is  still  to  be  made  in  the  transfer  of  cargo  through  un- 
occupied space,  where  the  hand  truck  and  electric  storage  battery 
truck  are  now  in  general  use  and  deserve  considerable  attention. 

TIME  STUDY  OF  MOVEMENT  AT  NEW  YORK 

These  tables  would  show,  first,  what  was  actually  being  done  by 
machinery  now  in  use ;  second,  they  would  show  the  many  variations 
under  which  cargo  is  being  handled;  and,  third,  they  might  show 
dow  the  work  could  be  speeded  up. 

\  One  point  the  tables  bring  out  very  clearly,  and  that  is  the 
unsteadiness  of  men  in  this  work.  The  tables  show  that  in  very 
few  instances  are  the  same  operations  performed  twice  in  exactly  the 
same  time.  For  instance,  take  the  operation  of  loading  32  cases  of 
condensed  milk  on  an  "airplane"  platform.  As  noted  in  the  table, 
the  time  varies  from  l  minute  48  seconds,  to  l  minute  56  seconds. 
It  was  plain  that,  in  every  instance,  the  time  could  just  as  well  have 
been  l  minute  flat,  and  if  it  were  possible  to  use  machines  in  this 
operation,  the  time  would  have  been  less,  and  each  figure  registered 
would  have  been  the  same. 

The  tables  also  show  that,  by  employing  fewer  men  and  more 
machinery,  cargo  can  be  handled  with  greater  speed  and  at  less 


234 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


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CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  235 

NOTE. — Mr.  Haight  states  the  following: 

In  this  case  it  was  possible  to  record  the  operations  20  times,  and 
it  seems  proper  at  this  point  to  explain  the  method  and  difficulty 
under  which  these  tables  were  obtained. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  impossible  for  one  person  to  see  every 
activity  in  connection  with  the  loading  and  unloading  of  any  one 
commodity.  For  instance,  in  handling  the  goods  enumerated  in  the 
above  table,  there  were  four  hand  trucks  wheeling  cases  to  one 
"airplane,"  and,  of  course,  it  was  possible  to  operate  the  stop-watch 
on  only  one  truck  at  a  time,  so  I  timed  one  truck  a  certain  number 
of  times,  another  truck  the  same  number  of  times  and  so  on  until 
all  four  trucks  were  timed.  The  same  method  was  used  in  loading 
these  trucks. 

It  will  be  noted  that  while  the  total  "airplane"  loading  time  is 
37  minutes  22  seconds,  the  total  wheeling  time  is  40  minutes  30 
seconds  and  the  total  hand-truck  loading  time  is  only  25  minutes 
12  seconds.  This  shows  that  there  was  some  waiting,  and  that 
three,  instead  of  four,  hand  trucks  should  have  been  used.  The 
figure  2  M.  under  "Wheel  across  pier,"  represents  the  time  for 
four  trucks,  while  the  actual  time  is  30  seconds.  The  total 
column  is  used  to  show  the  time  of  all  activities,  while  the  actual 
time  of  getting  the  goods  into  the  ship,  is  shown  under  the  column 
"Stow." 

cost.  Commissioner  Hulbert  says,  "The  steamship  companies  are 
satisfied  with  the  present  equipment,  and  do  not  desire  more 
machinery  installed." 

By  employing  a  tractor  and  four  trailers,  with  an  "airplane"  on 
each  trailer,  we  can  back  up  to  where  the  goods  are  stored,  load  all 
four  "planes"  in  the  same  time  that  it  would  take  to  load  one  plane, 
and  drive  across  the  pier  in  less  time  than  it  would  take  with  four 
hand  trucks,  which  are  now  being  used,  and  as  the  planes  are  already 
loaded,  there  will  be  no  reloading  at  the  ship's  side.  While  the 
trailers  are  traveling  across  the  pier,  a  stevedore  can  adjust  the 
slings,  making  it  necessary  simply  to  "hook  on"  at  the  ship's  side, 
thus,  practically  doing  away  with  the  time  it  now  takes  to  sling 
the  goods. 

The  plan  condensed,  is  simply  this.  The  ship  will  have  two 
cranes  to  a  hatch.  There  will  be  a  tractor  and  eight  trailers  on  the 
pier  for  this  particular  hatch.  There  will  be  12  platforms,  4  in  the 
hold,  4  on  the  trailers  loaded,  and  4  being  loaded  where  the  goods 
are  stored. 

The  procedure  will  be  as  follows.  On  the  pier:  Load  4  plat- 
forms, wheel  across  pier,  unhook  tractor,  return  for  another  set  of 
trailers  that  have  been  loaded  in  the  meantime,  wheel  across  pier, 


236 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


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hook  on  empty  trailers,  return  for  another  load,  and  so  on.  On  the 
ship :  Hook  on  draft,  hoist  and  lower  to  hold,  stow,  return  platform 
to  trailer,  and  so  on.  The  return  of  the  tractor  with  empty  trailers 
has  no  business  in  the  table,  because  it  does  not  lose  any  time. 

The  time,  using  the  figures  in  the  table,  will  be  as  follows: 
Loading  4  platforms  (128  cases),  i  minute  54  seconds.  Wheel 
across  pier — this  time  is  cut  in  half  as  tractors  travel'  faster  than 
hand  trucks — i  minute.  Hook  on — this  time  is  reduced  because  the 
sling  is  adjusted  while  crossing  the  pier — 8  seconds.  Hoist  and 
lower  to  hold  (128  cases),  3  minutes  20  seconds.  Unload,  3  minutes 
20  seconds.  Return  platform  to  trailer,  3  minutes  50  seconds.  If 
this  is  repeated  20  times,  2,560  cases  will  be  handled  in  approxi- 
mately 353  minutes  and  54  seconds,  as  against  640  cases  in  251 
minutes  and  43  seconds  by  hand  trucks. 


SORTING  COFFEE  ON  WHARVES  AT  NEW  ORLEANS 

Efficient  Methods  of  Handling  Discharged  Goods  on  Pier. — In 
other  parts  of  this  book  the  discussion  is  limited  altogether  to  load- 
ing operations  with  the  implication  that  discharge  is  not  essentially 
different.  However,  there  is  one  vital  problem  met  in  discharging 
that  is  not  found  in  loading,  namely,  that  of  sorting  and  piling  the 
discharged  goods.  The  shipowner  must  not  only  put  the  goods  on 
the  lighter  or  pier,  but  he  must  separate  the  different  consignments. 
How  onerous  a  task  this  may  become  under  some  circumstances  is 
shown  in  the  following  quotation  from  the  report  of  the  subcom- 
mittee appointed  through  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New  Orleans 
to  investigate  the  handling  of  coffee  cargoes.2 

The  undersigned  subcommittee,  appointed  to  investigate  the  dis- 
charge of  the  cargo  of  coffee  ex-S,S.  Manchurian  Prince  is  glad  to 
report  the  results  of  their  investigation,  but  before  entering  into  the 
details,  wish  to  express  their  appreciation  for  the  kindness  and  valu- 
able assistance  rendered  by  Messrs.  Warriner,  agents  of  the  above- 
mentioned  steamer,  as  well  as  by  Superintendent  Wren  and  officials 
of  the  Dock  Board,  who  assisted  in  every  possible  way  and  gave  all 
information  requested. 

2  Manuscript  loaned  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  New  Orleans. 


254  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

As  the  object  of  this  investigation  is  not  to  pass  criticism  on  the 
present  methods,  but  to  make  suggestions  to  improve  actual  condi- 
tions, we  will  abstain  from  making  such  comments  and  merely  state 
facts  and  offer  for  the  consideration  of  the  committee  suggestions, 
which,  in  the  opinion  of  this  subcommittee,  may  relieve  the  situation 
to  a  certain  extent. 

The  steamship,  Manchurian  Prince,  arrived  on  July  7  and 
was  given  a  berth  at  the  Poydras  Street  shed  from  section  num- 
bers i  to  23  (the  balance  of  this  shed  is  being  used  by  the  Barge 
Line). 

Discharge  of  the  cargo  of  this  steamer  was  somewhat  hampered 
by  the  fact  that  part  of  the  wharf  was  still  being  occupied  by  the 
coffee  unloaded  from  the  steamship  Maud  M.  Morey,  which, 
although  she  finished  her  discharge  on  June  27,  when  the  Man- 
churian Prince  arrived,  on  the  morning  of  July  7,  there  were  still  on 
hand  14,620  sacks  scattered  in  small  piles  in  sections  1 1  to  23,  on 
the  river  side,  and  16  to  23  on  the  street  side.  Most  of  this  coffee 
had  been  already  weighed,  but  to  the  best  of  the  information  of  this 
committee,  through  its  changing  hands  from  one  owner  to  the  other, 
delivery  had  not  been  taken  from  the  wharf. 

The  stevedores  of  the  Manchurian  Prince  were  compelled  to 
move  the  coffee  of  the  Maud  M.  Morey  at  different  times  on  July  7, 
8,  9,  10,  and  11.  The  expense  in  moving  this  coffee  was  for  account 
of  the  said  Manchurian  Prince. 

The  Maud  M.  Morey  arrived  June  21,  with  26,583  bags  of 
coffee,  and  notwithstanding  she  completed  her  discharge  on  June  27, 
as  stated  above,  on  the  morning  of  July  7,  there  were  still  on  hand 
14,620  bags,  which  prevented  the  Manchurian  Prince  beginning 
unloading  from  hold  No.  5  until  July  11. 

The  14,620  bags  were  taken  delivery  of,  as  follows: 

July     7,   1919 4,718  bags 

July     8,   1919 4,890     " 

July     9,   1919 1,981     " 

July   10,   1919 1,990     " 

July   11,   1919 1,041      "      14,620  bags 

In  order  to  obtain  prompt  relief  at  the  wharf  it  was  necessary  for 
the  Dock  Board  to  use  all  persuasive  means  to  induce  the  consignees 
of  the  cargo  of  the  Maud  M.  Morey  to  take  delivery  of  the  balance 
of  same. 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  255 

This  subcommittee  has  prepared  the  attached  schedule  No.  l, 
from  which  you  will  see  in  detail  the  work  performed  on  the 
Manchurian  Prince,  and  you  will  please  note  that  the  discharge  of 
hatch  No.  5  only  began  on  the  nth,  due,  as  stated  above,  to  the 
coffee  ex-S.  S.  Maud  M.  Morey  occupying  space  at  the  shed  which 
had  been  allocated  to  the  Manchurian  Prince. 

This  steamer  should  have  completed  her  discharge  on  the  after- 
noon of  the  15th  when  hatch  No.  2  was  finished.  This  being  on 
practically  all  ships  the  largest  hold,  the  discharge  should  be  so 
arranged  that  when  the  unloading  of  this  hold  is  completed  the 
balance  of  the  cargo  should  be  all  out.  Therefore,  outside  of  the 
expense  incurred  in  shifting  the  coffee  from  the  Maud  M.  Morey 
from  one  place  to  another,  there  was  an  actual  loss  of  time  of 
one  day  to  the  Manchurian  Prince,  which  loss  Messrs.  Warriner 
estimate  to  be  about  $4,000,  and  due  to  the  above-mentioned 
conditions. 

In  the  course  of  previous  meetings  it  had  been  stated  that  one  of 
the  many  reasons  why  there  is  a  delay  in  taking  delivery  of  the 
coffee  immediately  after  the  arrival  of  the  ship,  is  the  absence  of 
shipping  documents,  but  in  the  present  case  this  feature  does  not 
enter  into  consideration,  as  entries  were  made  at  the  customhouse, 
as  follows: 

On  July     9 99,220  bags 

On  July   10 9,800     " 

On  July  14 2,000     "       1 1 1,020     bags 

Owing  to  conditions  at  the  port  of  loading,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
separate  the  cargo  in  the  holds  of  the  ship  in  order  to  be  able  to 
know  on  arrival  of  the  steamer  in  which  hold  each  individual  mark 
has  been  loaded.  While  these  can  be  known  on  coffees  loaded  at  Rio 
and  Victoria,  at  Santos,  where  the  largest  percentage  of  coffee  is 
loaded,  it  is  sent  alongside  the  ship  in  trucks  and  loaded  indiscrimi- 
nately, therefore  making  it  impossible  to  effect  a  separation  by  marks 
in  the  holds. 

Due  to  these  circumstances,  no  plan  is  prepared  as  to  how  the 
cargo  is  to  be  stored  in  the  shed,  but  as  the  coffee  is  being  unloaded 
spaces  are  allocated  for  the  different  marks,  with  the  result  that  at 
the  time  half  of  the  cargo  is  out,  there  are  different  piles  of  the  same 
mark  in  different  sections  of  the  shed,  which  hampers  the  delivery  to 
the  consignees  and  consequently  the  delay  in  clearing  the  coffee  as  it 


256  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

is  unloaded  from  the  ship.  Furthermore,  a  great  deal  of  space  is 
wasted  in  unnecessary  gangways  that,  under  the  present  method, 
have  to  be  left  unused  in  order  to  enable  the  men  handling  the  coffee 
to  get  to  the  different  piles. 

During  the  course  of  the  discharge  there  is  always  a  certain 
percentage  of  bags  which  are  landed  torn  or  damaged  and  all  these 
are  stacked  in  one  lot,  which  is  called  the  "slack  pile,"  and  until  the 
ship  has  completed  discharge  this  coffee  is  separated  by  the  different 
marks. 

This  hampers  the  discharge,  as  some  of  the  consignees  delay 
taking  delivery  of  their  lots  until  the  said  separation  has  been 
performed,  especially  lots  going  to  the  interior,  where  they  naturally 
wish  to  send  the  complete  number  of  bags  as  covered  by  the  S.  S. 
bill  of  lading;  or  if  they  take  delivery,  there  are  always  left  small 
piles  which  occupy  large  spaces.  For  instance,  on  the  nth  of  July 
bill  of  lading  No.  7,  from  Victoria,  consigned  to  Messrs.  Hard  & 
Rand,  covering  250  bags  marked  H.R.  34,  and  230  bags  marked  H.R. 
80,  of  this  latter  lot  only  235  were  delivered  on  that  date,  leaving 
15  bags  pending  which,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  are  in  the 
slack  pile. 

It  has  been  customary  for  the  different  coffee  importers  to  assort 
their  lots  by  the  different  numbers  of  each  mark  covered  by  one  bill 
of  lading.  This  assortment  not  only  requires  a  much  larger  area 
to  effect  this  handling,  but  unnecessarily  delays  the  clearing  of 
the  coffee.  The  coffee  is  usually  piled  on  the  wharf  from  12 
to  15  bags  high,  and  at  the  time  this  reassortment  and  reweigh- 
ing  is  performed  the  weighers,  for  the  convenience  of  their  work, 
only  stack  the  coffee  six  bags  high,  which,  you  will  readily  ap- 
preciate, at  least  duplicates  the  space  used  in  the  handling  of  the 
coffee. 

Furthermore,  the  importers  do  not  take  delivery  of  the  coffee  as 
promptly  as  it  is  discharged,  as  several  sales  of  the  same  lot  of  coffee 
are  carried  out  during  the  time  the  coffee  is  being  unloaded  on 
the  wharf.  These  sales  are  not  always  made  of  the  total  num- 
ber of  bags  covered  by  the  steamship  bill  of  lading,  but  this 
amount  is  divided  into  one,  two,  or  three  lots,  which  necessitates 
extra  handling  in  each  instance,  thus  further  delaying  the  de- 
livery from  the  wharf,  which  becomes  practically  a  private  ware- 
house, thus  increasing  the  area  required  for  the  storage  of  the 
coffee. 

The  following  will  confirm  the  above  statement: 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  257 

Bill  of  lading  No.  5,  from  Rio,  covered  1,OOO  bags  marked 
J.A.A.  1/14,  consigned  to  J.  Aron  &  Company,  who  sold  them  to 
Messrs.  Seago  &  Company,  who  in  turn  sold  them  to  Messrs.  Levy  & 
Company.  In  order  that  Messrs.  Levy  &  Company  could  take 
delivery,  Messrs.  Seago  &  Company  requested  the  following 
separations : 

i — 20  8—112 

2—23  9—  75 

3 — 20  10 — 248 

4—43  11—42 

5 — 64  12 —  40 

<^-57  13—  33 

7—59  H— !53 

Bill  of  lading  No.  6,  from  Rio,  covered  1,000  bags  marked 
J.B.A.  15/28,  consigned  to  J.  Aron  &  Company,  who  sold  to  Messrs. 
Seago  £  Company  750  bags  and  250  bags  to  be  shipped  to  the 
interior,  therefore,  making  it  necessary  to  separate  by  the  different 
numbers. 

Bill  of  lading  No.  65,  from  Santos,  covered  2,500  bags  marked 
G.  C/A.  1/19,  consigned  to  Messrs.  G.  Amsinck  &  Company.  The 
said  firm,  instead  of  taking  delivery  of  the  whole  lot  as  called  for 
by  the  bill  of  lading,  requested  on  July  16  that  they  be  allowed  to 
take  delivery  of  only  1,000  bags,  made  up  as  follows: 

1—32  8—  13 

2—71  9—277 

3—35  10—  50 

4—18  17—  25 

5 — 80  18 — 100 
19—299 

Messrs.  Warriner  declined  to  allow  this  assortment  and  the 
matter  was  taken  up  with  the  Dock  Board,  who  authorized  on  July 
18  that  the  said  lot  should  all  be  taken  delivery  of  at  once,  divided 
in  the  following  three  lots : 

To  Messrs.  G.  Amsinck  &  Co 500  bags 

Ruffner,  McDowell  £  Burch 1,000     " 

G.  Amsinck  &  Co 1,000     " 

as  follows: 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


AMSINCK  &  Co. 

RUFFNER   MCDOWELL 
&   BURCH 

AMSINCK  TO 
WAREHOUSE 

1-2  1 

53 

32 

2-47 

218 

7i 

3-23 

58 

35 

4-12 

-  24 

18 

5-40 

80 

6-24 

96 

7-3i 

122 

8-4 

13 

9-70 

277 

10-43 

84 

50 

11-42 

151 

I2-IO 

41 

13-12 

57 

I4-IO 

42 

15-10 

40 

16-4 

H 

17-6 

25 

18-25 

.  . 

IOO 

19-75 

•• 

299 

500 

1,000 

1,000 

Bill  of  lading  No.  15,  from  Rio,  covered  500  bags  marked  H.R. 
1/3,  consigned  to  Messrs.  Hard  &  Rand.  This  firm  wrote  on  the  yth 
of  July  to  Mr.  G.  A.  Peyrefitte,  as  follows : 

Please  weigh  ex-dock  S.  S.  Manchurian  Prince  coffee  to  the  fol- 
lowing. Submark  each  lot  as  shown  below.  Charge  all  to  our  ac- 
count. 


Henry  Lochte  Co.  Ltd. 
H.R.  20)  —  25  Saturday 
J.R.    3)  -25 

50 


Submark:  H.  L.  C. 


L.  C.  Fallen  &  Co. 
H.R.)    1-54  Saturday 
J.R.)  2-27 
3—169 


Albert  Mackie  Co.,  Ltd., 
H.R.)   1--   25 
J.R.)  2—25 

3  —  125  Monday 


250 
Submark :  L.  C.  F. 

A.  Wahking  &  Sons. 
H.R.)  3—25  Saturday 
J.R.) 


Submark:  A.M.  C. 


Submark :  A.  W.  S. 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  259 

Bill  of  lading  No.  10,  from  Rio,  covered  i,OOO  bags  marked 
S.  C./C.  34/58,  consigned  to  Messrs.  Stewart  Camel  Company,  Ltd., 
had  to  be  separated  as  follows : 

34—78  47— 92 

35—72  48—42 

36—90  49—75 

37—29  50—3° 

38—20  51—  58 

39—25  52—33 

40—19  53—34 

41—27  54—13 

42—61  55—27 

43—11  56—11 

44—67  57—23 

45 — 12  58 —  6 

46—45 

To  effect  the  above  or  similar  separations  at  the  wharf  at  the 
time  of  discharge,  considerably  increases  the  necessary  area  to  store 
the  coffee,  and  if  no  separation  is  made  at  the  time  of  discharge  it 
delays  the  deliveries  until  there  is  sufficient  sp.ice  to  perform  the 
work. 

Bill  of  lading  No.  15,  from  Victoria,  covered  2,000  bags  marked 
V  &  L/Brazil  13/16,  consigned  to  J.  Aron  &  Company.  Of  No.  13 
there  were  650,  and  of  these  500  were  sold  to  Messrs.  K.  Seago  & 
Company,  thus  leaving  for  account  of  Aron  &  Company  1,500  bags. 

Bill  of  lading  No.  15,  from  Victoria,  covering  2,000  bags.  Out 
of  these  there  were  366  of  chop  No.  3.  Messrs.  Aron  &  Company, 
as  per  their  order  2010,  registered  4656,  sold  three  bags  to  Messrs. 
L.  C.  Fallen  &  Company,  who  in  turn  disposed  of  them  to  Nicholas 
Burke  &  Company,  and  were  sold  by  this  firm  to  Bloom's  Sons  Com- 
pany, who  finally  sold  them  again  to  Messrs.  T.  J.  Henderson,  and 
this  firm  took  delivery  of  same  on  the  i8th  of  July. 

Bill  of  lading  No.  5,  from  Victoria,  covered  500  bags ;  250  bags 
marked  HR  35  and  250  marked  HR  77,  consigned  to  Messrs.  M. 
Levy  &  Son,  who  sold  them  to  Messrs.  Bloom's  Sons  Company,  who 
again  sold  them  to  Messrs.  J.  Aron  &  Company,  and  finally  taken 
delivery  of  by  L.  C.  Fallon  &  Company. 

Several  other  cases  under  the  same  conditions  as  above  could  be 
cited,  but  this  subcommittee  feels  that  those  already  quoted  will  be 
sufficient  to  enlighten  you  as  to  the  practice  at  present  followed. 
This  practice  is  not  permitted  at  New  York,  where  the  coffee  must 
be  taken  delivery  of  immediately  after  discharge,  although  item  for 


26o  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

item  the  cost  of  handling  at  the  said  port  is  greater  than  the  cost 
of  this  port. 

You  will  find  attached  herewith  statement  No.  2,  showing  in 
detail  the  number  of  bags  daily  hauled  by  each  consignee,  and  your 
particular  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  on  the  3 1st  of  July,  or 
15  days  after  the  steamer  had  completed  discharge,  there  were  still 
on  hand  774  bags. 

The  delay  in  taking  delivery  of  the  coffee  not  only  works  a 
hardship  on  the  Dock  Board  by  occupying  space  which  is  so  badly 
needed  for  other  coffee  cargoes,  but  represents  an  expense  to  the 
agent  of  the  line,  as,  according  to  the  customs  of  the  port,  they 
are  responsible  to  the  consignees  for  the  coffee  until  delivered,  and 
consequently  have  to  employ  a  sufficient  number  of  watchmen  to 
take  care  of  the  coffee. 

By  glancing  over  statement  No.  2,  you  will  please  note  that  the 
firm  of  Israel  Brothers  took  prompt  delivery  of  their  lots ;  this  being 
due  to  the  fact  that  this  firm  assorted  their  different  lots  and  weighed 
them  at  a  private  warehouse. 

We  unhesitatingly  recommend  that  every  influence  be  brought 
upon  the  Dock  Board  to  build  two-story  warehouses,  the  lower  floor 
to  be  used  for  the  receiving  of  the  import  coffee  and  the  upper  floor 
for  the  assortment  and  reweighing,  for  which  operation  a  charge 
could  be  made  to  the  importer,  which  will  not  result  in  an  additional 
burden,  as,  we  repeat,  the  charges  through  New  Orleans  are  much 
lower  than  through  other  ports.3 

As  previously  mentioned,  no  plan  is  prepared  by  the  steamship 
agents  on  arrival  of  the  coffee  cargoes  as  to  how  these  are  to  be  stowed 
in  the  shed,  but  the  subcommittee  has  prepared  for  the  consideration 
of  all  interested  parties  the  attached  tentative  plan,  from  which  you 
will  note  that  in  the  available  space  111,020  bags  manifested  per 
the  Manchurian  Prince  were  distributed,  leaving  necessary  space  for 
the  different  gangways  of  three  feet  in  width,  from  which  you  will 
please  note  that  the  whole  cargo  could  have  been  stored  in  Poydras 
Shed,  even  assuming  that  no  coffee  was  taken  delivery  of  until  after 
completion  of  the  discharge. 

3  The  two-story  shed  recommended  here  is  an  attempt  to  supply  support- 
ing warehouse  or  storage  space  (see  Bulletin,  American  Association  of  Port 
Authorities,  Dec.,  1920,  article  by  R.  S.  MacElwee).  The  three-story 
Cressen,  Jr.,  type,  such  as  at  the  Army  Supply  Base,  Philadelphia,  would  fill 
this  need.  It  is  the  writer's  opinion  that  this  sorting,  weighing,  reselling, 
and  other  merchandising  processes  should  be  carried  on  in  warehouses  across 
the  marginal  street  from  the  transit  shed,  reached  by  bridge  and  trailer 
trucks  or  conveyors. 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  261 

However,  as  per  statement  No.  2,  the  committee  will  note  that 
the  unloading  having  commenced  on  the  yth,  deliveries  were  made  on 
the  Qth ;  therefore,  the  space  is  sufficient  to  take  care  of  one  of  the 
average  monthly  cargoes  coming  to  this  port,  as  outside  of  the 
Glenative  and  the  Chinese  Prince,  which  had  114,000  and  115,000 
bags,  respectively,  all  the  other  cargoes  were  around  100,000  and 
the  majority  under  100,000  bags. 

As  an  explanation  of  this  plan  we  took  as  a  basis  lots  of  250 
bags,  500  bags,  and  l,ooo  bags,  as  in  the  majority  of  cases  these  are 
the  numbers  covered  by  each  bill  of  lading. 

The  wharf  was  divided  into  four  sections,  Section  A,  on  which 
the  piles  can  be  built  up  to  15  bags  high,  and  Sections  B,  C,  and  D, 
on  which  piles  can  be  built  only  up  to  12  bags  high. 

While  the  piles  can  be  stored  higher,  owing  to  the  lack  of 
machinery  and  in  order  to  facilitate  the  separation  of  the  different 
lots  as  per  bill  of  lading  in  the  attached  plan,  the  lots  are  piled  only 
up  to  12  and  15  bags  high. 

In  Section  A,  on  which  you  will  see  only  lots  of  100  bags  are 
stacked,  the  piles  have  been  made  of  10  bags  in  length  and  7  in 
width,  occupying  30  by  14  feet,  or  420  square  feet,  which  gives  room 
enough  for  1,005  bags. 

On  the  lot  12  bags  high  the  following  sized  piles  have  been 
planned : 

Of      250  bags:     Square  occupying    18x12  feet,  or  216 

square   feet,   with   sufficient   room   to 

store  288  bags. 
Of  500  bags:  Square  occupying  21  x  12  feet,  or  252 

square   feet,   with   sufficient   room   to 

store  504  bags. 
Of  l,OOO  bags:  Square  occupying  36x14  feet,  or  504 

square   feet,   with   sufficient   room   to 

store  1,004  bags. 

We  would  suggest  that  on  arrival  of  each  steamer  the  Dock 
Board  be  furnished  with  a  copy  of  the  manifest,  when  a  similar  plan 
can  be  prepared  showing  the  space  in  which  each  individual  lot  is  to 
be  unloaded.  While  this  may  require  a  larger  number  of  men 
properly  to  stack  the  coffee  in  its  specific  lots,  as  it  may  be  that  the 
spaces  allocated  to  one  mark  are  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  ship  to 
the  hold  in  which  it  has  been  loaded,  yet  the  number  of  men  used  in 
effecting  this  separation  would  compensate  the  interested  parties  for 
the  time  saved  to  the  ship  and  help  in  clearing  the  coffee  from 
the  wharf. 


262  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

By  following  the  above  method  the  coffee  that  is  daily  landed 
from  the  ship  in  a  damaged  condition  and  at  present  stacked  in  the 
slack  pile  could  be  daily  reconditioned  and  redistributed  to  its  spe- 
cific lots,  thereby  enabling  the  consignee  to  take  delivery  of 
complete  lots. 

By  following  the  above  plan  it  would  not  be  possible  to  separate 
the  different  lots  as  they  are  landed  by  chop  numbers,  but  this  sub- 
committee would  suggest  that  on  arrival  of  the  steamer  each  con- 
signee should  deliver  to  the  Dock  Board  his  request  as  to  how  he 
desires  his  lots  to  be  subdivided,  and  as  space  is  being  vacated  by 
deliveries  made,  each  consignee  could  be  allowed  to  shift  the  coffee 
from  the  original  piles  to  the  space  so  vacated  and  use  same  for 
reweighing  and  separating  the  marks  by  the  different  chop  numbers. 

In  order  to  avoid  confusion  at  the  wharf,  a  consignee  should  not 
be  allowed  to  reweigh  or  separate  more  than  one  lot  at  a  time ;  that 
is  to  say,  until  one  lot  as  per  bill  of  lading  has  been  cleared  out  of 
the  wharf,  the  consignees  could  not  commence  to  separate  or  reweigh 
the  next  lot. 

This  subcommittee  has  also  prepared  an  index  by  marks,  which 
is  attached  herewith  and  which  completes  the  plan  of  distribution, 
so  that  each  consignee  could  know  where  his  coffee  was  going  to  be 
stored  and  therefore  be  able  to  ascertain  when  the  complete  lot  as  per 
bill  of  lading  had  been  unloaded  and  therefore  proceed  to  take 
delivery  without  delay.  It  is  evident  that  if  all  three  interested 
parties,  the  Dock  Board,  the  steamship  agent,  and  the  coffee  importer, 
would  cooperate,  especially  the  latter  by  hauling  his  coffee  as  soon 
as  the  piles  are  completed,  the  present  difficult  situation  could  be 
greatly  relieved. 

This  subcommittee  begs  leave  to  submit  the  above  report,  inspired 
in  their  sincere  desire  to  assist,  although  in  a  very  modest  way,  in  the 
improvement  of  conditions  which  in  a  way  may  hamper  the  develop- 
ment of  the  port  which  we  all  have  at  heart.  (Sgd.  HEGOWISCH.) 

Fortunately  these  conditions  are  not  representative  of  all  dis- 
charging operations.  In  comparison,  the  steps  ordinarily  necessary  to 
deliver  the  different  consignments  seem  comparatively  simple.  There 
are,  however,  in  almost  all  cases,  some  difficulties  to  be  overcome. 
There  is  lack  of  room  on  many  one-story  piers  and  the  goods  have 
to  be  piled  "on  the  farm,"  that  is,  on  the  pavement  or  street  at  the 
end  of  the  pier;  there  are  the  problems  of  piling;  and  there  must 
always  be  a  slack  pile  for  damaged  goods  to  be  recoopered,  resewn, 
renailed  or  adjusted.  The  best  methods  of  carrying  the  freight  from 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  263 

the  point  of  discharge  to  the  storage  space  have  been  indicated  in 
the  preceding  section;  there  remain  the  questions  of  separation 
and  stacking. 

Separation  is  accomplished  in  part  in  the  hold  and  in  part  on  the 
pier.  If  it  can  be  done  without  undue  delay,  drafts  should  be  made 
up  of  goods  of  one  consignment  only.  Since  the  different  consign- 
ments are  generally  easily  distinguishable  by  mark  or  character,  and 
since  many  consignments  are  of  one  character  throughout,  separa- 
tion in  the  hold  is  not  as  difficult  as  one  might  imagine.  The  one- 
consignment  draft  can  be  lowered  to  a  truck  and  rolled  directly  to 
the  place  of  storage.  In  order  that  the  separations  may  be  clearly 
made  and  that  the  longshoremen  may  not  become  confused,  the 
transit  shed  of  the  pier  should  be  marked  off  into  divisions.  The 
most  common  and  perhaps  the  best  method  of  doing  this  is  to  hang 
prominent  signs  down  the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  transit  shed. 
These  are  always  visible  from  almost  any  point  in  the  shed  and 
accomplish  their  main  purpose  without  being  in  the  way0 

Most  American  piers  have  a  driveway  down  their  center,  and  it 
would  seem  desirable  that  the  truckman  keep  out  of  this  space  by 
using  a  passageway  along  the  wall,  for  this  would  be  more  direct 
and  would  enable  him  to  avoid  the  teams.  However,  he  is  forced  to 
use  the  longer  congested  path,  because  all  the  storage  space  near  the 
wall  is  needed  and  because  he  would  cut  across  the  places  of  discharge 
of  other  hatches  if  he  went  along  the  wall.  The  traveling  crane  has 
some  advantage  here,  for  it  takes  the  direct  path.4 


WHARF  CONGESTION  AT  HAVANA,  CUBA 

The  sure  and  inevitable  retribution  of  wharf  congestion  that 
follows  the  violation  of  sound  wharfinger  principles  is  illustrated  by 
the  complete  collapse  of  the  Port  of  Havana,  Cuba,  during  1920. 
The  original  fault,  as  in  all  world  ports,  is  the  failure  of  new 
construction  and  equipment  to  keep  pace  with  increased  commerce. 
The  last  straw  that  broke  the  camel's  back  was  a  series  of  longshore- 
men strikes,  yet  it  would  have  been  possible  to  carry  on  and  to 
prevent  complete  congestion  if  certain  principles  had  not  been  vio- 
lated. These  are  briefly  stated  in  the  following  report  of  the  Joint 

4  Taylor,  Stowage  of  Ship  Cargoes. 


264  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Cuban-American  Commission  and  the  comments  of  the  writer  (R.  S. 
MacElwee)  to  Joshua  W.  Alexander,  United  States  Secretary  of 
Commerce,  who  appointed  the  American  Commission. 

The  Executive  Committee  of  the  American  Commission  and  the 
Cuban  Commission,  which  have  met  to  consider  and  recommend 
measures  for  relieving  the  congestion  in  the  Port  of  Havana,  having 
made  a  thorough  study  of  the  situation,  at  a  number  of  sessions, 
unanimously  agree  to  recommend  that,  in  order  to  relieve  the  existing 
congestion  in  the  Port  of  Havana  and  to  enable  importers  and 
merchants  to  take  prompt  delivery  of  their  cargo  from  the  piers, 
wharves,  and  warehouses  in  the  littoral,  the  following  emergency 
measures,  none  of  which  is  contrary  to  the  customs  regulations  in 
force,  be  adopted : 

First :  Extension  of  quedan  5  to  all  classes  of  merchandise,  per- 
mitting dispatch  upon  request  of  the  importers  in  either  partial  lots 
or  total  shipment. 

Second :  The  privilege  of  partial  dispatch  be  granted,  permitting 
the  withdrawal  of  part  of  the  shipment  and  basing  the  duties  upon 
the  assessment  or  appraisal  of  sample  packages,  to  the  extent  of 
about  10  per  cent. 

Third:  That  the  Customs  eliminate  minor  restrictions,  as  far  as 
possible,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  granting  of  quedan  to  all  classes  of 
merchandise. 

Fourth :  That  partial  clearance  and  delivery  of  shipments  be 
allowed  at  the  request  of  consignee  as  soon  as  such  merchandise  is 
reported  ready  for  delivery,  not  subjecting  such  cases  to  the  pro- 
cedure of  Article  172  of  the  Customs  Regulations,  but  only  to 
provisional  procedure,  in  order  that  the  goods  so  requested  may  be 
immediately  dispatched. 

Fifth :  That  merchandise,  other  than  dry  goods,  notions,  etc.,  not 
requiring  special  examination  by  the  Customs,  be  cleared  and  dis- 
patched in  the  place  in  which  same  is  discharged  from  vessel  or 
other  water  craft,  and  that  such  merchandise  be  duly  classified  at 
that  place. 

Sixth :  That  the  Government  authorize  the  discharge  to  and 
place  under  Customs  supervision  any  and  all  piers,  wharves,  or 


*A  certificate  of  pro  forma  entry  at  the  Customs. 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  265 

warehouses  in  the  harbor  which  may  be  used  for  the  discharge  of 
merchandise  in  accordance  with  Customs  Regulations. 

Seventh :  That  the  collector  of  customs  be  directed  to  dispose 
immediately  of  all  merchandise  now  held  in  store  pending  sale  in 
accordance  with  Articles  107,  108,  and  109  of  the  Customs 
Regulations. 

Eighth:  (a)  That  the  Government  allow  the  establishment  of 
bonded  warehouses  of  any  of  the  classes  mentioned  in  the  existing 
Customs  Regulations,  so  as  to  make  available  additional  room  for 
storage  of  goods  now  on  piers,  wharves,  and  warehouses  in  the 
littoral 6;  and  (b)  that  it  authorize  and  designate  private  warehouses, 
stores,  etc.,  as  bonded  warehouses,  to  permit  the  deposit  therein  of 
merchandise  subject  to  duty,  according  to  the  provisions  of  Articles 
185  and  186  of  the  Customs  Regulations. 

Ninth :  That  the  Government  commandeer  any  public  property 
that  may  be  available  for  the  purpose  of  storing  merchandise  and 
have  any  such  property  bonded  under  the  Customs  Regulations. 

Tenth :  That  in  cases  where  merchandise  dispatched  by  quedan 
is  not  removed  by  the  owner  within  the  48-hour  period,  as  prescribed 
in  the  Customs  Regulations,  same  shall  be  subject  to  the  provisions 
contained  in  Article  1 16  of  the  Customs  Regulations. 

Eleventh:  (a)  That  the  Government  issue  a  call  to  all  importers, 
brokers  and  others  to  cooperate  with  the  Government  in  its  efforts  to 
relieve  the  actual  congestion  of  the  port  and  wharves,  by  removing 
immediately — from  the  piers,  wharves,  and  warehouses  located  in 
the  littoral,  whether  public  or  belonging  to  private  corporations,  into 
which  direct  discharge  of  freight  from  vessels  is  made,  all  merchan- 
dise that  should  be  removed  under  the  customhouse  regulations ; 
and  (b)  that  when  issuing  such  call,  the  Government  notify  im- 
porters, brokers,  and  others  that,  after  a  period  of  fifteen  days  from 
date,  Articles  116  and  107,  108,  and  109  of  the  Customs  Regulations 
will  be  strictly  applied  to  all  merchandise  on  all  Government  and 
private  wharves  and  piers  at  the  Port  of  Havana. 

The  following  recommendations  designed  to  bring  relief  to  con- 
gested shipping  conditions  at  Havana  Harbor  were  proposed  by  the 
American  Committee  but  were  not  adopted  by  the  joint  action  of  the 
Cuban  and  American  Commission  : 

8  The  "littoral"  is  the  water  front  where  vessels  are  loaded  and  dis- 
charged. 


266  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Paragraph  11. —  (a)  That  the  Government  shall  issue  a  call  to 
all  importers,  brokers,  merchants,  and  others  to  remove  imme- 
diately all  merchandise  from  piers,  wharves,  and  warehouses  located 
within  the  littoral  into  which  discharge  of  merchandise  from  vessels 
or  other  water  craft  is  made. 

(b)  That  the  Government  in  issuing  such  a  call  shall  advise 
owners  that  if  such  merchandise  is  not  removed  by  them  from  the 
littoral  within  fifteen   (15)   days   from  date  of  this  call,  that  the 
collector  of  customs  shall  take  possession  thereof  as  unclaimed. 

(c)  That  if  such  merchandise  is  not  removed  by  the  owners 
within   this    1 5-day   period,   the   collector   of   customs   shall,   at  the 
expense  of  the  merchandise,  cause  it  to  be  removed  to  warehouses  or 
other  places  of  storage,  designated  by  the  Government  as  available 
and  suitable  for  such  storage. 

(d)  Merchandise  designated  in  subparagraph   (c)   shall,  upon 
the  expiration  of  the  15-day  period  provided  in  notice,  immediately 
become  subject  to  storage  charges  to  be  collected  by  the  Government 
in  accordance  with  Treasury  Department  Circular  No.  ll,  February 
1,  1908. 

(e)  In  case  merchandise  is  not  removed  from  designated  ware- 
houses within  statutory  period,  coFlector  of  customs  shall  take  steps 
to  dispose  of  same  in  the  manner  prescribed  in  Chapter  VIII,  Article 
116,  of  the  Customs  Regulations. 

Paragraph  12. — Merchandise  discharged  to  pie^s,  wharves,  or 
warehouses  within  the  littoral,  subsequent  to  this  notice,  and  not 
withdrawn  within  the  usual  free  time  period  granted  by  established 
dock  regulations,  shall  immediately  become  subject  to  provisions  of 
subparagraphs  (c),  (d),  and  (e)  in  paragraph  ll. 

Paragraph  13. — Until  such  time  as  the  lighters  in  the  harbor 
have  discharged  their  present  cargoes,  there  shall  be  set  aside,  for 
their  exclusive  use  for  discharge  of  cargo,  wharves  additional  to 
those  already  so  used.  This  will  facilitate  their  discharge  and 
prevent  destruction  of  property  that  might  occur  in  case  of  severe 
storms. 

Paragraph  14. — That  in  order  to  carry  out  the  emergency  meas- 
ures recommended  herein,  a  highly  competent  port  director  or  port 
commission  be  appointed  by  the  Government  with  full  authority  to 
coordinate  port  activities  and  to  employ  and  enforce  such  other  lawful 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  267 

and  practical  measures  as  will  result  in  relieving  existing  port 
congestion,  thereby  insuring  an  early  restoration  of  an  uninterrupted 
flow  of  traffic  in  and  out  of  the  port.7 

The  Joint  Commission  further  considers  that  the  present  capacity 
of  the  public  docks  of  Havana  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  increasing 
traffic  of  the  port,  and  that,  for  this  reason,  any  circumstance  that 
produces  an  interruption  in  the  movement  of  cargo  will  bring  about 
a  congestion  of  the  wharves. 

It  likewise  considers  that  the  lack  of  spacious  public  warehouses 
for  merchandise  classed  under  "general  order,"  is  one  of  the  princi- 
pal causes  of  the  existing  congestion,  since  it  is  evident  that  the 
moderate  rates  charged  by  the  private  wharves  induce  many  importers 
to  leave  their  merchandise  there  until  they  are  able  to  effect  its  sale. 

In  consequence,  the  Commission  considers  that  it  is  absolutely 
indispensable  that  the  Government  undertake  the  construction  of 
additional  wharves  or  the  enlargement  of  those  now  existing,  and 
that  it  proceed  to  build,  in  the  business  district,  large  warehouses  for 
the  storage  of  merchandise  classed  under  "general  order." 

Done  in  Havana,  on  the  eleventh  of  August,  nineteen  hundred 
and  twenty,  in  the  English  and  Spanish  languages. 

The  Cuban  financial  situation  was  adversely  affected  because  of 
the  "frozen  credits"  in  the  harbor.  This  harbor  congestion  was  a 
powerful  contributory  cause  of  the  financial  panic  that  followed  in 
October,  1920,  the  chief  cause  of  which  was  the  decline  in  the  world's 
market  price  of  sugar. 

\There  are  many  points  involved  in  the  Havana  port  congestion 
that  every  wharf  superintendent  and  port  director  should  take  to 
heart.  The  full  recounting  of  these  reports  in  this  book  at  this  time 
will  show  more  emphatically  than  any  academic  discussion  ever  can 
the  necessity  for  keeping  wharves  clear  of  merchandise.  Transit 
sheds  are  for  working  ships,  not  for  storing  merchandise,  and  the 
merchandise  must  be  kept  moving. 

7  Col.  Manuel  Despaigne,  a  member  of  the  Joint  Commission,  was  ap- 
pointed by  Pres.  Menocal  to  this  position  in  December,  1920. 


268  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

DISCUSSION  OF   REPORT  OF  THE   JOINT  COMMISSION  8 

The  nature  of  the  conditions  as  we  found  them  can  be  best 
covered  by  explaining  in  detail  the  meaning  and  reasons  for  the 
report  as  submitted,  a  copy  of  which  is  attached.  The  paragraph 
numbers  correspond  to  those  of  the  report  of  the  Joint  Commission. 

First :  A  quedan  is  a  certificate  of  pro  forma  entry,  which  permits 
the  merchant  to  withdraw  perishable  goods  by  paying  125  per  cent 
of  the  duty  as  estimated  on  the  consular  invoice.  After  the  duties 
have  been  properly  calculated,  the  difference  is  refunded  to  the 
merchant.  By  interpreting  all  goods  left  on  lighters  or  exposed 
places,  and  also  in  the  damp  climate  on  the  covered  wharves  them- 
selves, as  "perishable,"  it  is  possible  to  extend  this  pro  forma  entry 
privilege  to  all  merchandise.  It  is  a  matter  of  interpretation  of  the 
word  "perishable."  This  enables  the  merchant  to  withdraw  his  goods 
immediately  and  to  take  care  of  the  customs  formalities,  which  are 
rather  involved,  at  a  future  time;  the  result  would  be  to  clear  the 
wharves.  Therefore,  the  extension  of  the  right  of  quedan  to  all 
merchandise  was  the  first  step  in  loosening  up  the  customs  formali- 
ties and  clearing  the  wharves.  This  was  proposed  as  desirable  at 
the  first  meeting  in  your  office  at  Washington. 

The  privilege  of  dispatch  in  partial  lots  as  well  as  total  ship- 
ment was  extremely  important,  because  the  Cuban  customs  regula- 
tions required  that  a  shipment  of  goods  in  its  entirety  be  complete  at 
one  point  and  each  package  separately  inspected  there,  or  at  spe- 
cialized customs  rooms,  by  the  customs  officials  before  the  goods 
could  be  dispatched.  Due  to  the  congestion  and  the  resulting  confu- 
sion, particularly  the  discharge  of  merchandise  upon  different  lighters 
scattered  about  the  harbor,  it  became  impossible  to  gather  the  goods 
together  at  one  point.  Therefore,  by  permitting  the  withdrawal  of 
partial  lots,  which  again  was  a  matter  of  interpretation  of  the 
customs  law  and  not  a  change  in  the  law,  it  will  be  possible  for 
merchants  to  take  whatever  goods  they  can  find  where  they  find  them 
and  remove  them. 

Second:  The  privilege  of  partial  dispatch  is  reiterated  and  also 
it  is  added  that  the  duty  of  the  goods  may  be  assessed  upon  sample 

8  Report  to  the  United  States  Secretary  of  Commerce,  Joshua  W. 
Alexander. 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  269 

packages,  it  having  been  the  customs  practice  to  investigate  each 
individual  package  of  a  shipment,  even  though  fifty  or  a  hundred 
packages  might  be  identical.  There  is  nothing  in  the  customs 
regulation  to  require  this.  By  using  the  American  method  of  holding 
10  per  cent  of  a  consignment  for  the  appraisers,  it  will  be  possible 
for  the  importer  to  leave  the  samples  for  inspection  and  appraisal 
and  withdraw  the  90  per  cent  of  his  goods  immediately  on  a  quedan. 


Fourth :  This  paragraph  is  a  further  summary  of  the  more 
specific  statements  of  the  preceding  three  paragraphs. 

Fifth :  It  has  been  the  custom  at  Havana  to  send  merchandise  to 
certain  classified  customs  wharves  to  be  appraised  there.  The  fre- 
quent removal  of  goods  and  handling  to  the  various  commodity 
wharves  was  expensive,  even  when  movement  was  free  and  easy, 
but  under  present  congested  conditions  it  became  impossible  to  do  so. 
Therefore,  by  permitting  or  authorizing  the  inspection  of  the  goods 
as  they  lie  this  handling  would  be  eliminated  and  goods  could  be 
inspected  and  removed  at  once.  Dry  goods  are  excepted  because 
they  would  be  subject  to  damage  and  pilferage  if  opened  on  a 
general  wharf. 

Sixth :  By  declaring  all  wharves  "customs  wharves"  the  customs 
officials  and  the  appraisers  could  go  to  any  wharf  and  there  inspect 
the  merchandise  and  thereby  avoid  the  necessity  of  removing  the 
goods  to  regular  customs  wharves.  "Customs  wharves,"  therefore, 
was  extended  to  mean  every  point  where  goods  could  be  discharged. 
This  relieves  congestion  of  the  established  customs  wharves.  .  .  . 

Seventh :  It  is  estimated  that  about  one-seventh  of  the  space  of 
bulkhead  warehouses  of  the  Port  of  Havana  Docks  Company  is 
occupied  by  "unclaimed  goods"  that  have  been  there  from  six  months 
to  four  years.  Goods  unclaimed  and  left  in  the  hands  of  the  cus- 
toms may  be  taken  by  the  customs  at  the  end  of  five  days,  and  if  not 
claimed  at  the  expiration  of  six  months  are  to  be  sold  at  auction  to 
cover  customs  duties  and  expenses  for  storage.  When  the  customs 
auctioneer  put  these  goods  up  for  auction  at  the  end  of  six  months 
and  the  bid  fell  below  a  sum  to  cover  the  customs  revenue  and  the 
cost  of  storage,  he  declared  "no  sale"  and  put  the  goods  back  in 
storage  for  another  six  months  or  until  some  future  auction.  The 
customs  auctioneer  often  maintained  that  there  was  collusion  among 


270  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

the  buyers  to  keep  the  price  down  to  an  insignificant  amount,  by 
which  the  Government  would  be  the  loser.  On  the  contrary, 
although  this  may  be  the  case  in  some  instances,  it  is  perfectly 
obvious  that  cheese,  condensed  milk,  Mexican  beans,  which  the 
weavel  is  sure  to  get,  and  many  other  articles,  were  worthless  at  the 
end  of  six  months  and  even  so  repugnant  that  it  would  be  necessary 
to  hire  some  one  to  cart  them  away.  .  .  . 

Eighth :  Not  only  should  there  be  additional  Government  bonded 
warehouses,  but  to  oblige  the  merchants  to  withdraw  their  goods, 
regardless  of  their  convenience,  would  force  many  of  them  into 
bankruptcy,  inasmuch  as  they  were  doing  business  on  compara- 
tively small  capital  and  could  not  afford  to  pay  the  customs  duties 
on  their  goods  until  such  time  as  the  goods  had  been  sold.  It  is, 
therefore,  proposed  that  in  addition  to  the  creation  of  more  Govern- 
ment bonded  warehouses,  under  Section  A,  under  Section  B  the 
existing  law  be  put  in  force  permitting  merchants  to  set  aside,  under 
proper  restrictions,  bonded  warehouse  space  in  their  own  warehouses. 
This  will  make  it  possible  for  merchants  to  remove  goods  in  bond 
to  their  own  bonded  storerooms  to  be  "sealed"  there.  They  could, 
then,  carry  the  goods  in  bond  until  such  time  as  they  were  sold  and 
withdrawn  for  consumption.  In  conversation  with  various  mer- 
chants this  revision  was  made  a  special  appeal. 

Ninth :  One  of  the  principal  arguments  made  repeatedly  was  that 
the  merchant  could  not  move  anything  anyway  because  of  strikes. 
The  other  persistent  argument  was  that  there  was  no  place  to  put 
the  goods,  if  removed.  .  .  .  However,  our  investigation  showed  that 
if  the  merchants  were  forced  to  take  the  goods  they  could  find  a 
great  deal  more  space  than  they  claimed,  but,  of  course,  at  a  higher 
expense  to  themselves  than  existing  private  wharf  rates.  .  .  . 

Tenth:  Article  116  of  the  Customs  Regulations  provides  that,  if 
goods  are  not  removed  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time,  usually  5  days, 
they  may  be  seized  by  the  customs  officers  and  put  in  general  stores. 
In  order  to  force  the  merchants  to  make  use  of  the  quedan  once 
granted,  it  is  agreed  that,  if  they  do  not  exercise  the  privilege 
granted  in  the  quedan,  at  the  end  of  48-hour  period,  Article 
116  would  apply  and  the  goods  would  be  seized  and  put  in  general 
stores. 

Paragraphs  11  and  12  were  the  chief  bones  of  contention. 

Dating  from  the  days  when  the  facilities  of  a  port  were  in  excess 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  271 

of  its  commerce,  it  has  been  the  custom  to  permit  merchants  to  allow 
their  goods  to  remain  on  the  wharves  at  the  exceedingly  low  storage 
rate  of  about  9  cents  per  100  kilos  per  month.  (The  Government 
wharves  have  a  charge  of  3  to  7  cents  per  100  kilos  per  day  to  force 
removal.)  At  the  low  rate  it  was  cheaper  to  use  the  wharves  as 
storage  warehouses  than  to  take  the  merchandise  to  warehouses.  It 
was  necessary,  under  the  circumstances,  to  devise  a  punitive  charge 
on  goods  and  store  them  in  some  other  place  in  order  to  leave  the 
wharf  free  for  the  transit  handling  of  goods  to  be  loaded  or  dis- 
charged. 

Paragraph  11. — The  point  is  the  same,  namely,  that  at  the 
expiration  of  the  free  time,  under  the  customs  regulations,  the 
customs  authorities  will  seize  the  goods  and  remove  the  same  to  a 
Government  warehouse,  the  expense  being  charged  to  the  merchan- 
dise. This  charge,  in  the  Government  warehouse,  and  also  the 
charge  against  the  goods  for  removing  them,  will  be  a  punitive  rate 
that  will  force  the  merchants  to  remove  their  goods  from  the  wharves 
at  once.  .  .  .  The  hope  was  expressed,  however,  first,  that  the 
merchant  would  not  leave  very  much  to  be  removed,  which  is  the 
end  desired  and  not  the  collection  of  revenue ;  and,  second,  that  the 
Government  would  succeed  in  finding  sufficient  warehouse  space  to 
which  goods  could  be  removed,  thus  relieving  the  wharves.  Natu- 
rally there  is  an  outcry  from  the  merchants  that  their  privilege  of 
leaving  the  goods  on  the  wharves  at  low  rates  is  being  interfered 
with.  The  entire  approach  to  this  subject  by  the  committee  was: 
First,  that  it  should  be  made  very  easy  for  a  merchant  to  get  his 
goods ;  and,  second,  that  if  he  did  not  get  them  and  take  them  away 
he  should  bear  heavy  consequences.  It  is  believed  that  if  the  mer- 
chants find  it  is  to  their  great  disadvantage  to  leave  goods  on  the 
wharves  they  will  find  places  where  their  merchandise  may  be  stored. 
In  my  opinion,  the  entire  functioning  of  any  port  revolves  around 
these  two  points :  First,  make  it  absolutely  necessary  for  a  merchant 
to  remove  his  goods  from  the  transit  wharves  within  a  brief  period 
by  placing  heavy  punitive  charges  against  him  if  he  does  not  do  it ; 
and,  second,  make  it  as  easy  as  possible  to  get  his  goods  over  the 
wharves  and  through  the  customhouse.  Port  efficiency,  the  attain- 
ment of  a  maximum  tonnage  movement  for  every  linear  foot  of 
developed  water  front,  depends  upon  the  proper  equipment  and 
regulations. 


272  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

REMOVAL  OF  GOODS  FROM  WHARVES  AT  PHILADELPHIA 

With  further  reference  to  the  necessity  of  keeping  freight  moving 
on  the  wharves  in  order  to  prevent  congestion,  a  contribution  is  made 
by  the  Hon.  George  S.  Webster,  while  Director  of  Wharves,  Docks, 
and  Ferries  of  the  Port  of  Philadelphia.  Again,  it  seems  more  perti- 
nent to  quote  from  actual  examples  than  to  discuss  the  question 
from  the  academic  standpoint.  The  particular  point  to  note  in  this 
report  is  the  fact  that  comparatively  little  freight  can  be  removed 
from  the  piers  or  wharves  during  the  working  of  the  vessel ;  also  the 
iclatively  small  amount  of  pier  space  that  can  actually  be  used  for 
the  storage  of  freight.  The  writer,  in  Ports  and  Terminal  Facilities, 
calculated  an  average  required  floor  space  for  wharf  transit  sheds  to 
be  10  square  feet  for  each  cargo  ton  of  the  largest  vessel  using  the 
wharf.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  average  floor  space  actually  used  at 
the  wharves  investigated  by  Mr.  Webster  was  over  13  square  feet. 
This  can  easily  be  explained.  In  the  academic  study,  based,  as  it 
was,  on  European  wide  quays  and  transit  sheds,  it  was  found  that 
with  these  transit  sheds  constructed  150  to  200  feet  wide,  only  10 
square  feet  were  necessary. 

In  the  cases  reported  by  Mr.  Webster  the  wharf  space  is  entirely 
too  small  to  accommodate  all  the  cargo.  The  amount  of  trucking 
space,  aisles,  etc.,  in  relation  to  the  total  capacity  of  the  pier  is 
larger  than  in  an  adequate  shed.  Almost  as  many  aisles  are  required 
on  a  pier  75  feet  wide  as  on  a  pier  150  feet  wide — the  increased  floor 
area  being  a  clear  gain  to  the  storage  space  of  the  cargo.  With  this 
in  mind,  the  report  of  Mr.  Webster  assumes  particular  interest.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  conditions  vary  from  port  to 
port  and  from  wharf  to  wharf  at  each  port  as  to  the  percentage  of 
cargo  removed  from  or  delivered  to  the  wharf  by  railroads,  lighters, 
drays,  electric  trucks,  and  other  devices. 

Mr.  Webster's  report 9  follows  : 

I  hereby  submit  the  following  report  of  investigation  of  the 
freight  handled  on  Piers  19,  24,  25,  and  27  North,  from  steamships 
Carthaginian,  Ancona,  Snow  den  Range,  Sloderdijk,  and  America. 


9  Report  of  investigation  of  freight  handled  on  piers  19,  24,  25,  and  27 
North,  as  submitted  by  Assistant  Engineer  of  Department  of  Wharves, 
Docks,  and  Ferries  under  date  of  June  19,  1912. 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  273 

The  freight  is  handled  at  the  above  piers  to  and  from  the  ship 
by  stevedores,  on  a  price  per  ton  basis,  which  probably  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  the  freight  is,  in  general,  loosely  piled  on  the  pier,  also 
that  the  driveways  for  teams  are  restricted,  in  some  cases  to  8  feet 
in  width,  and  generally  there  are  no  turn-outs  except  the  openings 
kept  open  for  the  purpose  of  working  the  ship's  hatches. 

Where  the  freight  is  of  a  nonperishable  character,  few  teams, 
and,  in  general,  none  are  allowed  on  the  pier  for  the  purpose  of 
removing  freight  while  discharging  or  loading  a  vessel,  as  they 
interfere  with  that  work. 

Weight  of  a  ton  taken  is  2,240  pounds.  This,  I  am  informed, 
is  the  weight  used  by  the  steamship  companies. 

The  following  is  a  record  of  freight  handled  during  the  period 
of  investigation : 

Steamship  Carthaginian  from  Glasgow  arrived  at  the  north  side 
of  Pier  19  North  on  April  26,  1912.  Gross  tonnage,  6,096;  capacity, 
6,OOO  tons.  Length,  386  feet;  beam,  45  feet;  draft  loaded,  25  feet 
6  inches;  hatches,  4.  Reported  cargo,  1,800  tons;  by  calculation, 
1,612  tons. 

The  regular  berth  for  this  ship  is  the  south  side  of  Pier  24 
North,  but  as  the  greater  part  of  that  pier  was  occupied  by  outbound 
freight  the  remaining  available  space  would  not  accommodate  all  of 
the  inbound  freight,  and  a  portion  of  it  was  discharged  on  the  north 
side  of  Pier  19  North. 

The  inbound  freight  discharged  at  Pier  19  was  burlap,  furniture^ 
hides,  spiegeleisen,  wool  waste,  potatoes,  and  potash.  That  discharged 
on  Pier  24  was  fish,  beef,  fertilizer,  and  potatoes.  The  outbound 
freight  on  Pier  24  was  mainly  flour  in  sacks. 

\  The  inbound  freight  was  loosely  piled  on  both  piers.  A  drive- 
way, average  width  10  ft.,  entire  length  of  both  piers;  truck  way 
along  car  pits  (on  Pier  No.  19,  5  ft.  6  in.  wide)  on  both  sides  of 
Pier  No.  24,  7  ft.  6  in.  wide ;  4  openings  for  hatches  20  by  30  feet 
on  each  pier,  and  a  number  of  lateral  truck  ways  through  freight, 
cut  the  available  floor  space  from  30,800  sq.  ft.  for  Pier  No.  19  and 
58,000  sq.  ft.  for  Pier  No.  24,  a  total  of  88,800  sq.  ft.,  to  about 
22,OOO  sq.  ft.  for  Pier  No.  19  and  34,000  sq.  ft.  on  Pier  No.  24,  a 
total  of  56,000  sq.  ft.  The  difference  of  56,000  sq.  ft.  available  and 
48,520  sq.  ft.  actually  covered  was  used  in  the  case  of  Pier  No.  19  by 
left-over  inbound  freight,  and  in  the  case  of  Pier  No.  24  with  out- 
bound freight  that  was  not  taken.  Time  of  unloading,  3  days ; 
loading,  4  days ;  total  time  in  port,  7  days.  Time  of  moving  freight 


274 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


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276  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

from  Pier  No.  19,  7  days ;  Pier  No.  24,  6  days.  No  inbound 
freight  removed  from  piers  until  all  freight  was  discharged  from 
ship. 

Average  number  of  teams  on  piers  at  one  time:  First  day  5, 
waiting  1 1 ;  second  day  5,  waiting  4. 

Steamship  Ancona  from  Geneva  and  Naples  arrived  at  the  south 
side  of  Pier  No.  19  North  on  April  27,  1912.  Gross  tonnage,  10,OOO  ; 
capacity,  5,400  tons;  length,  480  feet;  beam,  58  feet;  draft  loaded, 
28  feet;  cargo  reported,  550  tons.  The  inbound  freight  discharged 
was  vermuth,  olive  oil  (in  cases  and  barrels),  wine,  orris  root, 
macaroni,  etc.  The  outbound  freight  was  oil,  cotton,  scrap  rubber, 
tobacco,  rags,  etc. 

Delivered  to  ship  from  lighters,  579  tons ;  total  outbound  freight, 
6ll  tons;  total  inbound  freight,  626  tons.  This  freight  did  not 
cover  the  south  of  the  pier.  Maximum  height  of  freight,  9  feet 
(macaroni  units  of  about  25  pounds),  the  minimum,  2  feet  6  inches 
(oil  in  barrels  on  side). 

Steamship  Sloderdijk  arrived  at  south  side  of  Pier  27  North  on 
May  2,  1912;  6  hatches.  This  ship  did  not  discharge  her  entire 
cargo  at  Pier  27,  owing  to  lack  of  space.  Total  cargo  reported,  3,400 
tons;  discharged  at  Pier  27,  2,850  tons;  remainder,  350  tons  taken 
to  South  Wharves ;  no  outbound  freight  taken  from  pier.  The 
freight  discharged  was  cotton  bales,  cluice  (cases),  hides  (bales), 
peat  moss  (bales),  rice,  starch,  waste  (bales),  wood  pulp  (bales), 
alkali  (hogsheads),  clay  (hogsheads),  coffee  (bags),  fish  (barrels), 
glycerin  (tanks),  etc. 

The  freight  discharged  on  the  second  deck  was  light  and  bulky, 
consisting  of  cotton,  peat  moss,  starch,  waste,  and  wood  pulp ;  that 
on  the  first  deck,  fish,  glycerin,  lumber,  wine,  coffee,  tobacco,  etc. 
The  freight  on  the  bulkhead  was  entirely  fish  and  oil  in  barrels. 

Time  of  unloading,  20  hours.  No  teams  permitted  on  pier  while 
unloading.  Time  of  removal  of  freight  from  pier,  6  working  days. 

Steamship  Snowden  Range  from  Leith  arrived  at  Pier  25  North 
on  May  5,  1912.  The  gross  tonnage  and  capacity  could  not  be 
obtained,  but  the  following  measurements  were  taken:  length,  336 
feet  5  inches;  width,  47  feet;  draft  loaded  21  feet,  light  9  feet  6 
inches ;  5  hatches ;  reported  cargo,  2,800  tons,  cargo  by  calculation, 
2,857  tons-  Ninety  per  cent  of  this  freight  was  potatoes;  balance 
burlap  ano!  fish  in  cases.  No  outbound  freight  taken  from  this  pier, 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES 


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CLEARING  THE  WHARVES 


279 


the  entire  floor  space  being  occupied  with  inbound.  The  ship  was 
required  to  move  to  another  pier  up  the  river  for  her  outbound  cargo. 

This  freight,  being  mainly  potatoes  in  sacks  of  168  pounds,  was 
piled  compactly. 

The  average  driveway  for  teams  was  1 1  feet.  The  total  floor 
space  of  pier,  exclusive  of  i -track  car  pit,  was  44,000  sq.  ft.,  but 
this  was  reduced  by  driveway,  truck  passages,  and  offices  to  about 
31,000.  Time  of  unloading,  35  hours;  time  of  removing  freight 
from  pier,  8  working  days. 

Steamship  America  from  Geneva  and  Naples  arrived  at  south 
side  of  Pier  No.  19  North  on  May  9,  1912;  3  hatches.  Gross 
tonnage,  9,000;  capacity  5,025  tons,  length  500  feet,  beam  56  feet 
5  inches,  draft  loaded  26  feet,  light  17  feet;  reported  cargo,  350 
tons;  calculated,  339  tons.  About  60  per  cent  of  this  freight  was 
macaroni,  the  balance  cheese,  crushed  granite  in  bags,  glycerin,  olive 
oil,  and  tomato  paste  in  cases. 


Pier 

On 
Pier 
Tons 

Floor 
Space 
Occupied 
sq.  ft. 

Volume 
cu.  ft. 

Average 
Height 

Floor 
Space 
per  Ton 

Volume 
cu.  ft. 

19 

339 

4436 

26949 

6.1 

13-1 

80 

SUMMARY 
INBOUND  FREIGHT 

Total   8429  tons 

Removed  from  pier  while  vessels  discharging 429  tons 

Remained  on  piers  until  vessels  finished  discharging.  ..  8000  tons 

Floor  space  occupied  by  freight  on  piers 108,302  sq.  ft. 

Volume  of  space  occupied  by  freight  on  piers 626,460  cu.  ft. 


Average  height  occupied  by  freight  on  piers. 
Floor  space  per  ton  occupied  by  freight  on  piers 
Volume  per  ton  occupied  by  freight  on  piers. 

Removed  from  pier  by  teams 

Removed  from  pier  by  cars 

Removed  from  pier  by  lighters 


OUTBOUND 


Total    

Delivered  from  lighters  over  ship's  side 

Loaded  on  ship  from  pier,  while  discharging. 


5.8  ft. 

13-5  sq.  ft. 

78.3  sq.  ft. 

66.5  per  cent 
33  per  cent 
0.5  per  cent 


5026  tons 

2364  tons 

406  tons 


28o  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Remained  on  piers  until  vessel  finished  discharging.  . .          2356  tons 
Floor  space  occupied  by  freight  on  piers  when  finished 

discharging    22,606  sq.  ft. 

Volume  occupied  by  freight  on  piers  when  finished  dis- 
charging        1 50,63 1  cu.  ft. 

Average    height    occupied    by    freight    on    piers    when 

finished  discharging   6.6  ft. 

Floor  space  per  ton  occupied  by  freight  on  piers  when 

finished  discharging   10  sq.  ft. 

Volume   per   ton    occupied    by    freight    on    piers    when 

finished  discharging   66  cu.  ft. 

Delivered  at  pier  by  teams 4  psr  cent 

Delivered  at  pier  by  cars 49  per  cent 

Delivered  at  ship's  side  by  lighters 47  per  cent 

The  inbound  cargoes  investigated  were  a  fair  average  of  the 
general  class  of  inbound  freight,  except  that  there  were  more  pota- 
toes received  during  this  time  than  ordinarily.  However,  the  potatoes 
were  found  to  weigh  30  pounds  per  cubic  foot  as  piled  on  the  pier 
and  to  occupy  about  74  cubic  feet  per  ton.  They  were  piled,  on  an 
average,  about  6  feet  high.  The  greater  part  of  them  was  moved  by 
teams,  which  increased  the  removal  by  teams  to  66  per  cent  of  the 
total  inbound  freight,  whereas  50  per  cent  is  a  fairer  average. 

The  average  removal  by  cars  is  50  per  cent.  A  very  small  quan- 
tity of  freight  is  removed  by  lighters.  The  outbound  freight  investi- 
gated was  not  sufficient  to  give  fair  averages.  However,  from 
observation,  I  estimate  50  per  cent  is  delivered  directly  over  the 
ship's  side  from  lighters,  30  per  cent  by  cars,  and  20  per  cent  by 
teams  over  the  pier  to  the  ship. 

The  following  conditions  are  apparent  from  this  investigation. 
There  is  but  a  small  percentage  of  freight  removed  from  the  piers 
while  the  stevedores  are  working  a  vessel,  either  loading  or  dis- 
charging. This  is  due  to  the  arrangement  of  the  piers,  whereby  the 
teams  are  driven  on  the  same  deck  over  which  the  freight  is  trucked 
by  hand  to  and  from  the  ship,  and,  of  course,  with  teams  on  the 
piers,  the  trucking  is  seriously  interfered  with  and  the  ship's  depar- 
ture delayed;  in  the  other  case,  the  freight  remains  until  the  teams 
are  admitted  to  remove  it.  which  delays  the  removal  of  the  freight 
from  the  piers  one  to  three  days.  Furthermore,  if  the  teams  had 
free  access  to  the  freight  as  soon  as  the  ship  commenced  discharging, 
in  most  cases  a  considerable  percentage  of  freight  would  be  moved 
before  that  work  was  finished,  which  would  effect  a  saving  of 
floor  space. 

The  average  height  of  freight  is  6  feet ;  volume  per  ton,  78  cu. 
ft.;  floor  space  per  ton,  13  feet.  This  indicates  that  the  average 


CLEARING  THE  WHARVES  281 

weight  per  cubic  foot  is  28  Ibs.,  and  with  the  average  height  of  6 
feet  we  have  170  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft.  of  floor  surface.  Thus  the  piers  are 
loaded  to  about  50  per  cent  of  their  efficiency.  The  only  means  to 
increase  the  efficiency  in  this  direction  would  be  to  increase  the 
height  of  freight,  but  the  average  of  6  feet  appears  to  be  the 
economical  height  with  manual  labor.  Therefore,  to  increase  the 
efficiency  of  the  piers,  it  is  necessary  that  the  freight  be  handled  by 
mechanical  means.  If  a  practical  overhead  device  could  be  installed, 
the  efficiency  of  piers  could  be  increased  by  increasing  the  height  of 
freight  and  by  decreasing  the  area  now  required  by  hand  trucks. 

As  this  investigation  has  been  rather  brief  and  confined  to  a  small 
number  of  piers,  I  do  not  claim  that  the  figures  submitted  represent 
an  accurate  average  of  the  entire  freight  handled  at  the  Port  of 
Philadelphia,  but  rather  approximate  averages.  A  more  thorough 
investigation,  embracing  other  piers  and  ships,  may  change  the 
figures  slightly,  due  to  different  arrangements. 

The  subject  of  the  cost  of  handling  freight  was  not  touched  in 
this  investigation.  A  study  of  this  subject  would  allow  a  compari- 
son between  manual  labor  and  mechanical  means  for  handling 
freight.  If  a  practical  overhead  device  could  be  installed,  the 
efficiency  of  piers  could  be  increased  by  increasing  the  height  of 
freight  and  by  decreasing  the  area  required  by  hand  trucks. 

In  my  opinion,  from  this  investigation,  there  is  derived  but  a 
small  percentage  of  the  total  efficiency  of  the  piers. 


CHAPTER  XV 

DELIVERY  OF  MERCHANDISE  FROM  THE  WHARF1 
DELIVERY  FROM  WHARF  TO  DRAYS 

Cartage  Delays. — The  handicap  placed  upon  American  business, 
both  domestic  and  foreign,  by  cartage  congestion  at  wharves,  particu- 
larly at  the  piers  in  New  York,  is  illustrated  by  the  quotations  that 
follow  from  correspondence  between  the  writer  and  certain  well- 
known  importing  and  exporting  houses  of  New  York. 

Letter  No.  i,  from  W.  &  G.,  Commission  Merchants : 

I  inclose,  as  you  suggest,  a  list  of  shipments  we  made  during 
the  month  of  December,  showing  overtime  of  55  hours  after  6 
o'clock  P.M.  on  the  different  piers.  The  list  includes  the  names  of 
concerns  for  whom  the  merchandise  was  shipped  [deleted  and  num- 
bers substituted]. 

The  overtime  hours  do  not  in  themselves  indicate  the  number 
of  hours  our  trucks  spent  on  the  piers  awaiting  unloading,  but  merely 
cover  the  hours  spent  after  6  o'clock.  Many  of  these  trucks  have 
reached  the  docks  as  early  as  10  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  remained 
there  until  10  and  12  o'clock  at  night,  and  where  they  have  reached 
the  docks  as  late  as  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  they  have,  in  a  few 
instances,  been  compelled  to  wait  until  the  early  hours  of  the 
morning  to  unload. 

I  will  be  pleased  to  furnish  you  with  any  further  details  that 
will  aid  you  in  correcting  the  evil. 

Letter  No.  2,  from  G.  B.  &  Co.  : 

Of  almost  equal  importance  at  the  present  time  is  the  question 
of  a  system  of  terminals  to  which  points  all  freight  could  be 
consigned  for  reshipment.  With  conditions  as  they  are  to-day,  the 
expense  involved  in  bringing  all  packages  to  warehouse  for  the 

1  By  R.  S.  MacElwee. 

282 


DELIVERY  OF  MERCHANDISE  FROM  THE  WHARF    283 

OVERTIME  ON  EXPORT  SHIPMENTS 


Firm 

Shipped 

Pier 

Hours 

i 

Dec.    2,  1919 

Pier  33  Brooklyn 

2 

2 

Dec.    2,  1919 

Pier  15  Hoboken 

3 

3 

Dec.    3,  1919 

Pier  45  Brooklyn 

3 

4 

Dec.    3,  1919 

Pier  63,  N.  R. 

i 

5 

Dec.    3,  1919 

Pier  9  N.  R. 

i 

6 

Dec.    3,  1919 

Hoboken 

2 

7 

Dec.    4,  1919 

Pier  9  N.  R. 

2 

8 

Dec.    6,  1919 

Pier  2  Bush  D. 

I 

9 

Dec.    6,  1919 

Pier  2  Bush  D. 

/        4 

10 

Dec.    8,  1919 

Pier  42  N.  R. 

I 

ii 

Dec.    8,  1919 

Pier  13  E.  R. 

4 

12 

Dec.    9,  1919 

Bush  Docks 

1 

13 

Dec.    9,  1919 

Bush  Docks 

14 

Dec.    9,  1919 

Bush  Docks 

r   8 

15 

Dec.    9,  1919 

Bush  Docks 

16 

Dec.    9,  1919 

Bush  Docks 

J 

17 

Dec.  10,  1919 

Bush  Docks 

2 

18 

Dec.  18,  1919 

17  Hoboken 

I 

19 

Dec.  22,  1919 

13  E.  R. 

5 

20 

Dec.  23,  1919 

2  Empire  St. 

i 

21 

Dec.  24,  1919 

3  Empire  St. 

1      2 

22 

Dec.  24,  1919 

3  Empire  St. 

J       2 

23 

Dec.  24,  1919 

31  N.  R. 

4 

24 

Dec.  26,  1919 

34  Atlantic  Docks 

3 

25 

Dec.  27,  1919 

Bush  3 

4 

26 

Dec.  27,  1919 

17   Brooklyn 

i 

27 

Dec.  27,  1919 

3  Bush  Docks 

i 

purpose  of  determining  whether  they  are  properly  packed,  and  in 
holding  them  pending  the  sailing  of  steamers,  is  a  very  large  one, 
frequently  all  out  of  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  merchandise 
shipped.  We  have  very  often  found  this  to  be  the  case  when  it 
comes  to  such  goods  as  cheap  glassware  or  woodenware  and  bulky 
toys.  Frequently  a  barrel  of  glassware  does  not  cost  more  than  $10, 
whereas  the  lowest  possible  charge  for  carting  the  goods  to  the 
warehouse  and,  later  on,  from  warehouse  to  steamer  amounts  to  $1.50 
alone,  that  is,  quite  aside  from  the  handling  charges  and  warehouse 
expenses,  which  often  aggregate  as  much  as  30  and  35  per  cent  of 
the  value  of  the  merchandise  itself.  This  has  been  a  very  sore  point 
with  many  of  our  export  customers ;  in  fact,  it  is  hurting  business. 
The  creation  of  terminals  would,  of  course,  greatly  reduce  these 
charges. 

Another  matter,  which  has  been  quite   serious  of  late,   is   that 
teams  are  kept  waiting  on  the  docks  so  long  before  they  can  discharge 


284  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

their  loads.    While  I  have  not  any  remedy  to  suggest,  I  do  not  wish 
to  fail  to  bring  the  point  to  your  attention. 

In  another  letter  dated,  May  20,  1920,  some  actual  examples 
are  given : 

It  has  been  our  experience  that,  while  the  actual  cartage  and 
drayage  costs  are  high,  it  is  the  overtime  charges  which  are  "the  last 
straw  that  breaks  the  camel's  back,"  so  to  speak.  For  instance:  On 
January  7  we  delivered  126  packages  to  a  certain  line  in  New  York, 
on  which  the  truckage  was  $58.40,  on  which  the  overtime  was  $54 
(36  hours). 

On  January  17  we  forwarded  17  packages  to  another  line  in  this 
city  on  which  the  truckage  was  $6.80  and  the  overtime  $9. 

These  are  just  two  examples  taken  at  random,  to  show  that  the 
overtime  charges  very  often  amount  to  more  than  the  truckage 
charges.  We  will  cite  you  a  few  excerpts  of  letters  from  our  cus- 
tomers in  regard  to  cartage  charges,  which  you  understand  is  always 
added  to  our  invoices,  our  merchandise  being  sold  "f.o.b.  factory"  or 
"f.o.b.  house." 

"Regarding  your  charge  of  $50.40  for  overtime  due  to  delay  of 
truck  at  pier,  we  highly  appreciate  your  good  desire  to  give  attention 
toward  us,  but  in  this  particular  case  you  understand  it  is  impos- 
sible for  us  to  allow  this  charge,  and,  therefore,  cannot  recognize 
the  charge." 

Another  letter  from  an  export  company  in  New  York : 

"In  regard  to  your  charge  of  November  24,  $15,  and  November 
18,  $25,  we  have  invoices  covering  these  items.  However,  we  have 
not  as  yet  seen  fit  to  pass  same  to  the  credit  of  your  account.  It 
seems  to  us  that  out-of-the-ordinary  conditions  which  would  entail 
extra  cartage  expense  is  a  matter  which  you  as  vendor  should  take 
into  consideration  when  making  quotations.  It  should  be  treated  as 
an  overhead  expense  rather  than  a  trucking  charge." 

As  there  is  keen  competition  in  all  our  lines,  as  well  as  in  others, 
exporters  of  manufactured  merchandise  are  unable  to  include  in 
their  quotations  a  leeway  to  cover  cartage  or  packing,  and  inland 
freight  charges,  and  all  our  orders  are  taken  subject  to  these  charges. 
Sometimes  they  are  high  and  sometimes  they  are  low,  but  in  a  great 
many  cases  where  they  are  high  customers  simply  deduct  these 
charges,  and  we  can  safely  say  80  per  cent  of  our  export  claims  are 


DELIVERY  OF  MERCHANDISE  FROM  THE  WHARF   285 

due  to  this  matter  of  excessive  charge  on  cartage  and  drayage,  which 
we  must  pass  on  to  the  customer,  or  else  very  often  lose  our  own 
profit. 

Another  example  of  a  shipment  amounting  to  $466.31,  for  San 
Juan,  P.  R. ;  the  truckage  charge  was  $8.60 ;  the  overtime  was  $19.20. 

Another  shipment  for  Mayaguez,  P.  R. ;  insured  value  of  mer- 
chandise, $600;  overtime  cartage  charge,  $50.40. 

As  said  before,  it  is  the  overtime  that  is  the  bad  feature  of  this, 
and  in  our  opinion  it  is  due  to  insufficient  dock  and  terminal  facili- 
ties. Our  customers  do  not  hesitate  paying  the  usual  and  fair  charge 
for  cartage  from  our  house  to  pier,  but  when  our  trucks  must  stand 
in  line  sometimes  for  36  hours,  in  order  to  make  this  shipment 
possible  it  naturally  seems  unreasonable  to  the  customer,  and  is  the 
cause  of  all  these  aggravating  claims. 

We  recently  have  been  shipping  a  lot  of  merchandise  through 
New  Orleans,  and  the  charges  from  that  port  have  been  very  much 
lower  than  from  New  York,  due  to  the  terminal  facilities  of  that  city. 

Relief  through  a  Store-door  Delivery  System. — The  relief 
for  cartage  congestion  is  some  uniform  trucking  system  combined  with 
store-door  delivery.  By  "store-door  delivery"  is  meant  the  applica- 
tion of  the  letter-carrier  principle  to  incoming  package  freight,  par- 
ticularly less  than  carload  lots.  In  larger  towns  the  population 
would  not  think  of  going  to  the  post  office  and  standing  in  line 
to  get  their  letters ;  yet,  this  is  exactly  what  we  have  forty  thousand 
or  more  trucks  doing  in  New  York  every  day.  There  should  be 
some  system  of  delivery  by  which  the  packages  would  be  carried  to 
the  door  of  the  consignee  at  once  upon  arrival,  thus  clearing  the 
wharves  more  rapidly  and  relieving  the  congestion  caused  by  many 
half-empty  trucks  waiting  to  pick  up  their  various  pieces  of  freight. 
One  of  the  prime  movers  in  the  agitation  for  store-door  delivery  has 
been  G.  F.  Hichborn,  General  Traffic  Manager  of  the  United  States 
Rubber  Company.  This  method  is  briefly  described  in  the  following 
report : 

The  committee  upon  store-door  delivery  of  the  Federal  Highway 
Council  Convention  at  Akron,  Ohio,  of  which  the  writer  is  chairman, 
submitted  the  following  findings  : 2 

JMr.  Beck,  of  Baltimore  Merchants'  Association,  read  a  paper  upon 
store-door  delivery,  before  the  meeting  of  the  Federal  Highway  Council  in 
New  York,  December  10,  1920,  that  may  be  had  from  the  Council.  This  is 
the  best  presentation  to  that  date. 


286  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

REPORT  OF  THE  SUBCOMMITTEE  ON  STORE-DOOR  DELIVERY 
Mr.  Chairman,  the  subcommittee  wishes  to  report  as  follows: 

In  submitting  this  to  you,  however,  I  wish  informally  to  express 
the  opinion  of  the  committee  that,  providing  this  report  be  accepted, 
the  committee  be  kept  intact  in  order  to  go  further  and  make  a  more 
lengthy  report  upon  this  matter. 

Preamble 

In  many  cities  traffic  has  outgrown  the  freight  terminal  facilities. 
Methods  must  be  found  for  more  intensive  use  of  existing  facilities 
by  handling  more  shipments  per  day  over  the  same  platforms. 

Recommendations 

It  is  therefore  suggested  by  the  committee  that  that  part  of 
terminal  congestion  caused  by  cartage  difficulties,  may  be  relieved 
by  the  inauguration  of  some  system  of  immediate  delivery  to  the 
consignee  of  incoming  freight. 

This  may  be  accomplished  by  the  following  plan : 

The  municipal  area  should  be  divided  into  zones  of  delivery. 

The  shipper  will  be  required  to  mark  the  package  and  shipping 
papers  with  the  street  address  of  the  consignee.  The  railroad  agent 
at  point  of  origin  will  add  the  zone,  from  a  guide  book  supplied  for 
the  purpose. 

Where  the  delivering  carrier  has  two  or  more  stations  in  the  area, 
the  station  nearest  the  zone  in  which  the  delivery  will  fall  will  be 
designated.  Goods  upon  arrival  will  be  unloaded  at  the  designated 
station. 

The  freight  house  at  destination  will  be  divided  into  sections 
corresponding  with  the  zones  of  the  city  and  freight  on  arrival  will 
be  placed  in  these  sections,  grouped  according  to  blocks  in  the  zone 
and  ready  for  delivery  to  the  tracks. 

The  freight  terminal  will  be  served  by  a  single  consolidated 
trucking  service,  whose  trucks  will  travel  over  prescribed  routes. 

No  outside  trucks  will  be  permitted  to  call  at  L.  C.  L.  platforms. 

As  trucks  arrive  they  will  be  fully  loaded  and  immediately 
dispatched. 

All  freight  charges  as  indicated  by  the  railroads,  and  also  cartage 
charges,  will  be  collected  from  the  consignee  by  the  consolidated 


DELIVERY  OF  MERCHANDISE  FROM  THE  WHARF  287 

trucking  service.    For  this  collection  the  consolidated  trucking  service 
shall  give  a  bond  satisfactory  to  the  railroad  companies. 

A  reasonable  tariff  of  charges  for  delivery  should  be  published 
and  filed  with  the  proper  authorities.  The  rate  should  be  commen- 
surate with  the  service,  calculated  for  each  zone,  and  such  rates 
would  be  similar  for  all  terminals  within  each  zone.  The  cartage 
charges  should  be  in  addition  to  the  freight  rate. 

So  far  as  possible,  mechanical  means  should  be  installed  for  the 
handling,  loading  and  dispatching  of  the  trucks. 

The  above  deals  entirely  with  less-than-carload  freight,  and  it 
is  the  thought  of  the  committee  that  carload  freight  be  not  considered 
at  this  time. 

After  once  establishing  the  inbound  trucking  service  to  the 
consignee,  a  further  study  should  be  made  for  the  pick-up  freight 
service  for  outbound  shipping. 

(Signed)  R.  S.  MACELWEE,  Chairman. 

In  conclusion,  it  would  seem  that  one  of  the  principal  problems 
confronting  all  wharf  administration  to-day  is  the  question  of 
cartage  and  the  rapid  delivery  of  freight  to  the  cart,  in  order  to 
relieve  the  wharf  and  also  to  reduce  the  terminal  expense.  Whether 
this  expense  be  borne  by  the  wharf  operator,  the  steamship  line,  or 
the  shipper,  it  all  weighs  upon  American  foreign  trade  and  makes 
American  business  less  able  to  compete  in  foreign  markets.  The 
prosperity  of  the  steamship  line  in  the  end  depends  upon  the  move- 
ment of  freight,  and  this  movement  of  freight  depends  upon  Ameri- 
can competitive  ability  in  the  foreign  market.  It  is,  therefore, 
decidedly  the  problem  of  the  wharf  superintendent  to  see  that  all 
expenses,  whether  borne  by  his  organization  or  not,  are  reduced  to 
the  minimum. 


DELIVERY  FROM  WHARF  TO  RAILROAD  CAR 

In  every  port  a  large  proportion  of  incoming  freight  is  delivered 
from  the  wharf  to  railroad  cars.  At  New  York  the  lack  of  a  harbor 
belt-line  railway  is  met  by  the  lighterage  system.  Although  the 
lighterage  system  necessitates  a  rehandling  of  the  goods  between 
the  railroad  car  and  the  lighter  and  is,  therefore,  very  expensive,  for 
the  present  it  is  a  substitute  for  a  belt  railroad  and  does  afford 
flexibility  in  the  connection  between  every  wharf  and  every  railroad 


288  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

system.  In  a  thoroughly  modern  port,  however,  there  should  be  a 
belt-line  railroad  that  would  make  it  possible  to  switch  freight  cars, 
loaded  or  unloaded,  between  any  wharf  and  any  railroad  serving 
the  port.  If  the  port  is  laid  out  on  the  pier  system,  a  good  example 
are  the  piers  at  the  Norfolk  Army  Supply  Base  and  at  Philadelphia. 
At  these  points  the  piers  are  made  double  width  and  the  spur  tracks 
extend  down  the  center  of  the  pier.  This  makes  it  possible  to  truck 
freight  a  short  distance  to  and  from  the  assembling  piles  and  the 
door  of  the  box  car  on  the  inshore  side  of  the  pier  deck. 

This  delivery  may  be  by  hand  truck,  trailer  truck,  electric  lift 
platform  truck,  by  gravity  roller  conveyors,  or  by  portable  belt 
conveyors.  The  movement  between  car  and  pile  on  the  pier  is 
entirely  similar  to  the  movement  between  the  pile  on  the  pier  and 
the  picking-up  point  at  ship's  side.  Car  loading,  however,  is  not 
quite  so  important  a  process  as  stowing  a  ship,  yet  it  requires  care. 
Consider,  therefore,  that  the  pier  is  of  the  Philadelphia  type  or  of 
the  quay  system,  with  the  car  track  opposite  the  ship  and  the  transit 
shed  between.  It  will  be  found  that  in  delivering  freight  to  the 
pier  it  is  impossible  to  drill  railroad  cars  in  and  out  of  the  pier  and 
discharge  them  as  fast  as  the  ship  can  load.  Conversely,  it  will 
also  be  found  that  a  ship  can  discharge  much  more  rapidly  than  the 
freight  cars  can  be  loaded  and  removed  from  the  point  where  they 
are  spotted  across  from  the  ship.  There  must  always  be  taken  into 
consideration  the  reservoir  principle  of  the  transit  shed.  Freight 
from  railroad  cars  must  be  assembled  in  advance  of  the  loading  of 
the  ship ;  also  the  delivery  of  freight  to  the  cars  will  not  usually  be 
directly  from  the  ship's  hatch  across  the  wharf. 

In  most  wide  piers  or  quays  the  side  of  the  transit  shed  opposite 
the  ship  is  served  by  both  the  railroad  track  and  a  road  for  drays. 
There  results  an  inevitable  interference  between  railroad  freight  and 
cartage  freight.  This  is  avoided  by  delivering  to  carts  during  the 
day  working  hours  and  to  railroad  cars  during  evening  or  extra- 
time  hours.  At  the  terminal  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  the  lake  vessels 
discharge  their  cargo  into  the  transit  sheds  on  the  pier ;  these  are 
served  by  a  wide  street  and  railroad  tracks  down  the  center  of  the 
pier.  In  this  particular  case  the  drays  for  local  delivery  receive 
their  freight  during  working  hours  until  5  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

A  still  better  layout  would  be  with  team  platforms  at  the 
bulkhead  and  trailer  truck  or  telpher  service  between  the  pier  and 


DELIVERY  OF  MERCHANDISE  FROM  THE  WHARF  289 

bulkhead  for  team  loading,  leaving  the  car  tracks  in  the  center  of 
the  pier  entirely  for  railroad  freight  at  all  times. 

Loading  Box  Cars. — The  correct  loading  for  box  cars  is  a 
matter  that  requires  considerable  study.  The  suggestions  and  dia- 
grams furnished  by  the  American  Sugar  Refining  Company  are 
quoted  herewith  in  extenso.  Although  these  instructions  do  not  cover 
all  classes  of  freight  they  show  the  loading  of  box  cars  with  various 
types  of  containers  and  should  be  suggestive  of  the  more  complete 
study  and  better  general  methods  of  delivering  freight  from  the 
wharf  to  the  car. 

GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS 

Car  Loading — Selection  of  Cars. — Sugar  must  be  loaded  in  per- 
fectly tight,  dry,  and  clean  cars.  Cars  with  end  doors,  end  windows 
or  ventilators  must  be  thoroughly  protected  around  openings  with 
waterproof  paper  and  boards. 

Cars  with  double  side  doors  may  be  used  for  loading  barrels  and 
cases,  rejecting  those  where  door  strips  cannot  be  applied.  Refrig- 
erator and  produce  cars  may  be  used  for  barrels  and  cases,  but  only 
those  that  are  absolutely  free  from  odor  and  when  openings  are 
thoroughly  protected. 

Inspection. — Cars  must  be  thoroughly  inspected  for  defects  in 
roof,  sides,  ends,  doors,  floors  and  fastenings.  Protruding  nails 
must  be  removed.  Sweep  all  cars  and  eliminate  every  evidence  of 
dirt,  oil,  acid,  moisture  or  other  conditions  which  are  likely  to 
damage  sugar.  If  any  unfavorable  conditions  prevail  that  cannot 
be  overcome  with  suitable  dunnage,  reject  the  car. 

Distribution  of  Load. — No  truck  of  any  car  should  carry  more 
than  one-half  of  the  marked  capacity  plus  10  per  cent  for  overload. 
The  lading  must  be  so  placed  that  there  will  not  be  more  weight  on 
one  side  of  the  car  than  on  the  other. 

Dunnage. — Dunnage  boards,  where  required,  must  be  of  the 
necessary  length,  not  less  than  one  inch  thick  and  five  inches  wide. 

Cleats,  where  required,  must  not  be  less  than  2  by  4  by  8  inches, 
of  sound  material  and  secured  by  four  3-inch  nails.  When  necessary 
to  nail  cleats  to  lining  of  box  cars  having  steel  superstructure  with- 
out exterior  siding,  the  nails  must  not  be  driven  entirely  through 
the  lining  of  the  car. 


290 


DELIVERY  OF  MERCHANDISE  FROM  THE  WHARF  291 

Chocking  cleats,  where  required,  must  be  of  2  by  6  inches, 
straight-grained,  sound  material,  10  inches  long  with  cut-out  2  by 
6  inches  to  receive  end  of  chocking  board,  placed  with  cut-out  toward 
back  of  car  and  secured  with  six  3-inch  nails  (Fig.  88). 

If  facilities  are  not  at  hand  for  cutting  this  cleat,  a  substitute 
may  be  used  consisting  of  plain  cleats  2  by  4  by  6  inches,  on  top  of 
which  the  chocking  board  must  be  secured.  In  front  of  upper  and 
lower  cleats,  nail  a  protecting  strip  2  by  4  by  18  inches,  secured  by 
six  3-inch  nails. 

Chocking  material,  where  required,  must  be  of  straight-grained 
sound  lumber,  not  less  than  2  by  6  inches  and  of  necessary  length. 

Door  strips,  where  required,  must  be  of  straight-grained,  sound 
lumber,  not  less  than  l  inch  thick  by  6  inches  wide,  with  3-inch 
lap  on  door  post  secured  by  three  3-inch  nails,  each  end  of  strip 
nailed  to  inside  of  door  post,  placed  sufficiently  close  to  floor  of  car 
and  to  each  other  to  prevent  lading  from  falling  or  rolling  out  of 
car  or  coming  in  contact  with  door. 

Dunnage  paper,  known  as  weather-proof  rosin-sized  building  or 
rag  sheathing  paper,  where  required,  must  be  of  sufficient  weight 
and  thickness  fully  to  protect  lading  against  absorption  of  moisture 
or  contamination. 

Assorted  Car  Loading  and  Less  than  Car  Loading. — Due  to 
variations  in  size  of  orders  and  dimensions  of  cars,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary at  times  to  work  out  slight  changes  in  the  methods  set  forth. 
Otherwise  assorted  car  loading  and  less  than  car  loading  must  follow 
standard  methods  hereinafter  shown  for  each  kind  of  package. 
Containers  and  cases  must  be  loaded  at  end  of  car,  followed  by 
bags  or  sacks,  placing  barrels  through  center  in  a  manner  to  be 
"self-chocking."  Packages  of  dimensions  other  than  those  illus- 
trated must  be  loaded  to  conform  to  standard  methods  (Figs.  89, 
90,  and  91). 

Barrel  Loading. — Barrels  must  not  be  rolled  on  bilge.  Stowing 
in  cars  must  be  on  heads  only,  in  all  tiers.  Barrels  of  powdered  or 
cube  sugar  must  not  be  placed  in  first  tier  under  heavier  barrels 
when  second  tier  is  necessary. 

Bag  or  Sack  Loading. — Keep  bags  or  sacks  away  from  sides  and 
doorways.  Floors  and  ends  of  cars  must  be  covered  with  dunnage 
paper.  If  doors  do  not  close  tight,  protect  by  nailing  a  door  strip  at 
floor.  Hooks  must  not  be  used  in  handling  bags  or  sacks  (Fig.  92). 


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65  BAGS  OR  SACKS 
120  CONTAINERS,  1  6  3>2-LB.  GRANULATED 
48  FULL  CASES  CRYSTAL  DOMINO  TABLETS 
128  SMALL  CASES  CRYSTAL  DOMINO  TABLETS 
40  BARRELS 

;nd,  6  wide,  4  high,  5  rows.  Load  full  size 
id  small  cases  8  wide,  4  high,  4  rows.  L 
ter  on  floor,  —  "self-chocking."  Nail  door  s 
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295 


296  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Case  Loading. — Cases  must  not  be  loaded  on  end  or  sides  except 
where  necessary  to  turn  one  row  of  top  layer  to  act  as  chocking.  If 
car  doors  do  not  close  tight,  protect  by  door  strip  at  floor. 

Container  Loading. — Floors,  sides  and  ends  of  cars  must  be 
protected  by  dunnage  paper.  Load  containers  with  sealed  end  in 
horizontal  position,  piling  true  and  even  to  prevent  cutting  or 
crushing  of  edges  and  corners. 

Load  small  quantities  in  assorted  cars  with  same  care. 

Solid  cars  of  containers  must  be  protected  at  doorway,  such 
protection  extending  one  foot  each  side,  by  a  flooring  of  dunnage 
boards,  laid  two  inches  apart,  crosswise  of  car.  If  car  doors  do  not 
close  tight,  protect  by  door  strip  at  floor.  Hooks  must  not  be  used 
in  handling  containers. 

DELIVERY  FROM  TRANSIT  SHED  TO  WAREHOUSE 

This  movement  presupposes  the  proper  construction  of  wharves 
with  adjacent  warehouses  as  described  in  the  chapter  that  follows. 
The  adjacent  or  water-front  warehouse  is  a  comparatively  new 
development  in  American  port  design.  It  is  obvious  that  the  dis- 
tances from  wharf  to  warehouse  are  too  great  for  economical  truck- 
ing by  man  power  with  the  small  hand  truck.  As  stated  above,  the 
longer  distances  are  covered  better  by  tractors  and  trailers,  by  elec- 
tric lift  platform  trucks,  or  by  overhead  conveyor  or  man-trolley 
system. 

The  construction  of  the  upland  warehouse  with  many  stories 
makes  the  vertical  movement  as  important  as  the  horizontal  move- 
ment. In  the  chapter  on  "Warehousing"  in  Ports  and  Terminal  Fa- 
cilities (1918),  the  writer  stated  that  the  interior  elevation  was  uneco- 
nomical compared  with  the  whip-and-fall  or  winch-and-tackle  system 
outside  the  warehouse.  This  statement  was  made  before  the  intro- 
duction of  the  large  platform  elevator  with  an  automatic  leveling 
device.  The  writer  has  based  his  opinion  upon  considerable  experi- 
ence in  the  elevator-construction  industry  prior  to  the  time  of  the 
invention  of  this  automatic  floor-leveling  device.  The  great  ware- 
housing systems  in  Manchester,  Liverpool,  London,  and  particularly 
at  Hamburg,  had  all  found  that  interior  elevation  was  uneconomical 
and  that  the  electric  winch,  with  a  fall  from  a  projecting  beam  over 
the  doorways  of  the  warehouse,  was  the  most  simple  and  rapid 


DELIVERY  OF  MERCHANDISE  FROM  THE  WHARF  297 

method.  In  some  cases,  for  instance  where  water-side  delivery  from 
different  parts  of  the  harbor  is  possible  and  goods  come  under  the 
gable  beams  of  the  warehouse  in  lighters,  the  drum-and-fall  system 
of  hoisting  to  upper  floors  outside  the  walls  of  the  building  is  still  to 
be  preferred.  But  where  it  is  possible  to  load  small  platforms  or 
trailers  in  the  transit  shed  and  tow  them  by  means  of  some  type  of 
electric  truck  directly  into  the  warehouse  adjacent  to  the  wharf,  the 
interior  elevation  has  become  possible  through  the  invention  of  the 
microleveling  elevator.  The  automatic  or  microleveling  elevator  is 
the  combination  of  the  push-button  control  with  a  secondary  auto- 
matic leveling  device.  The  latter  consists  of  a  small  motor  that  is 
immediately  set  in  operation  and  moves  the  elevators  very  slowly 
when  the  platform  of  the  elevator  varies  more  than  half  an  inch  from 
the  level  of  the  warehouse  floor.3 

A  large  platform  carrying  perhaps  a  tractor  and  five  trailers  will 
be  dispatched  to  the  desired  floor  by  pushing  a  button  that  actuates 
the  automatic  control.  There  is  nothing  new  in  this,  as  all  Europe 
is  supplied  with  push-button  passenger  elevators,  and  many  New 
York  residences  have  them.  The  elevator  stops  automatically 
approximately  level  with  the  floor  indicated.  If  the  elevator  does 
not  exactly  register  with  the  floor  the  elevator  platform  makes  elec- 
tric contact  with  certain  control  switches.  This  closed  circuit  sets  in 
motion  a  small  motor  that  moves  the  platform  slowly  until  it  reaches 
the  floor  level,  where  the  contact  is  broken  and  the  platform  makes 
a  perfect  stop.  If  a  large  platform  is  loaded  with  a  heavy  weight  the 
ropes  will  stretch.  Formerly  with  the  hand-switch  control  it  was 
necessary  for  the  operator  in  the  elevator  to  giggle  the  elevator 
upward  and  downward  to  overcome  the  stretch  in  the  rope.  With 
the  new  device,  as  soon  as  the  platform  settles  the  contacts  are  made 
that  set  the  microleveling  motor  in  motion,  and  this  brings  the 
platform  back  to  the  proper  level.  Heavily  loaded  trucks  coming 
upon  the  elevator  will  sag  the  rope,  yet  the  adjustment  is  so  rapid 
that  before  the  following  truck  enters  upon  the  platform  the  proper 
level  will  have  been  reestablished.  This  system  of  interior  eleva- 
tion by  large  platform  elevators,  in  connection  with  the  microleveling 
device,  has  entirely  revolutionized  the  possibilities  of  water-front 
construction. 

3  Full  description  of  the  mechanics  of  this  device  can  be  obtained  from 
the  Otis  Elevator  Company. 


298  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

The  problems  of  water-front  design  with  proper  regard  to  ware- 
housing and  in-transit  storage  that  will  make  possible  a  higher 
utilization  of  water  front  were  discussed  in  the  December,  1920, 
monthly  of  the  American  Association  of  Port  Authorities. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE 

The  following  opinions  from  the  best  authorities  will  describe 
warehousing  in  various  details. 

WAREHOUSING 

Requirements  of  Facilities. — Buildings  and  floors  must  be  clean 
and  dry,  free  from  all  liability  of  damage  from  floods  or  contami- 
nation and  moisture.  All  evidence  of  dirt,  filth,  oil,  acids  or  other 
substances  likely  to  damage  sugar  must  be  removed. 

Barrels,  bags,  sacks,  cases  and  containers  must  be  handled  in  a 
manner  which  will  insure  their  delivery  to  the  purchaser  in  a  clean 
and  perfect  condition. 

Passageways  must  be  maintained  to  allow  free  inspection. 

Each  lot,  mark,  size,  brand  or  kind  of  package  must  be  stored 
separately  as  shown  on  invoices,  in  order  to  preserve  the  identity  of 
the  shipment. 

Withdrawals. — Orders  must  be  clear  and  accurate  to  prevent 
confusion  in  withdrawing  lots,  grades,  sizes,  or  kinds  of  packages. 

Lot  numbers  specified  must  be  withdrawn  as  instructed.  Never 
substitute  other  lots  (even  though  of  same  grade,  size  or  kind  of 
package)  unless  authorized.  Complete  delivery  of  the  oldest  lots 
must  be  made  before  beginning  withdrawal  of  new  stock,  unless 
instructed  otherwise. 

Account  of  Stock. — Upon  request,  the  warehouse  shall  furnish  to 
the  company  a  report  of  the  stock  on  hand,  showing  each  individual 
lot,  mark,  grade  and  package,  which  should  agree  with  the  warehouse 
office  records. 

Auditors  of  the  company  shall  have  access  to  the  warehouse  and 
records  to  verify  the  account  of  stock  and  for  inspection. 

Records  must  be  kept  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  be  balanced 
without  loss  of  time. 

299 


300 


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301 


302  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Receipts. — Proper  and  complete  receipts  must  be  obtained  from 
transportation  companies,  draymen  or  others  concerned,  fully  to 
protect  the  Company  against  loss. 

Barrels. — Barrels  must  not  be  rolled  on  bilge. 

Barrels  must  be  set  on  heads  in  all  tiers.  Between  each  tier  place 
two  dunnage  boards,  not  less  than  one  inch  thick  by  five  inches  wide, 
under  each  barrel.  When  breaking  down  from  piles,  use  sliding 
skids  or  mechanical  devices  positively  to  prevent  dropping. 

Bags  or  Sacks.— Great  care  must  be  given  to  the  storage  of  bag 
or  sack  sugar.  Floors  must  be  thoroughly  clean  and  sound,  free 
from  nails  and  other  projections,  and  covered  with  heavy  or  water- 
proof paper.  When  these  conditions  do  not  prevail,  or  when  floors 
are  of  concrete,  use  clean  dunnage  boards  laid  on  timbers  to 
keep  bags  or  sacks  free  from  damage  or  contamination.  Pile  in 
orderly  manner,  cross-tie  ends  and  corners.  Sacks  containing  small 
bags  must  not  be  piled  higher  than  ten  feet.  Do  not  pile  against 
walls  or  partitions.  Hooks  must  not  be  used  in  handling  bags  or 
sacks. 

Containers. — Use  same  care  and  preparation  of  floors  as  for  bags 
or  sacks.  Pile  only  on  a  level  surface.  Pile  all  containers  with 
sealed  end  in  horizontal  position.  Pile  true  and  even  to  prevent 
cutting  or  crushing  of  corners  or  sides.  Do  not  pile  in  excess  of 
five  feet  in  height.  Use  heavy  paper  between  alternate  layers  as  a 
binder  to  hold  containers  in  position.  Do  not  handle  in  slings. 
Protect  bottom  layers  from  damage  by  trucks  by  placing  boards  at 
corners  and  sides.  Hooks  must  not  be  used  in  handling  containers. 
Cases. — Cases  must  not  be  piled  on  sides  or  ends.  Do  not  handle 
in  slings  or  on  slides.  Do  not  pile  in  excess  of  six  feet  in  height. 

STORAGE 
NOTES 

1.  The   instructions   which   follow   are   almost  in   entirety  re- 
printed from  Storage  Committee  Bulletin  No.  7,  written  by  Henry 
Wood  Shelton,  Assistant  Professor  of  Business   Organization  and 
Management    at    the    Amos    Tuck    School    of    Administration    and 
Finance,  Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  N.  H.,  and  issued  by  The 
Storage  Committee  of  the  War  Industries  Board,  Council  of  National 
Defense,  5216  New  Interior  Building,  Washington,  D.  C. 

2.  A  few  additions  and  some  changes  in  arrangement  have  been 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE 


303 


made,  but  these  are  so  inconsequential  that  entire  credit  for  these 
storage  instructions  is  due  Professor  Shelton. 

3.  The  terms  used  in  stowing  have  never  been  generally  stand- 
ardized. The  meaning  of  such  words  as  item,  lot,  unit,  tier,  block, 
stack,  etc.,  are  but  vaguely  comprehended,  largely  because  of  am- 
biguity in  their  use.  The  definitions  given  are  offered  as  one  step 
toward  a  generally  recognized  nomenclature,  necessary  for  accurate 
instructions. 

DEFINITIONS 

1.  Article:     Any  single  piece:  e.g.,  I  can,  canned  corn,  No.  2 
size  can,  xyz  brand. 

2.  Bin:     A  receptacle  for  holding  articles,  formed  of  parallel 
shelves — one  above  the  other — divided  by  vertical  partitions. 

3.  Bin-insert:     A  removable  frame  for  subdividing  a  bin. 

4.  Block:     A  self-supporting  regular  pile,  two  or  more  wide, 
two  or  more  deep,  and  two  or  more  high.     A  block  may  be  either 
cubical  or  pyramidal. 


an 
an 
nn 
an 
a 


Cubical  block  of  1OO — stack  of  10  (end  view) 


nnnnnnna 


an 
nnnn 


nnnnnn 
nnnnnn 
nnnn 


n 


Cubical  block  of  100 — 10  stacks  (side  view) 


304 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

D 
D  D 

nan 
anna 

Pyramidal  block  of  loo — i   stack  of  10  (end  view) 


nnn 


n 


nnnnnan 
nnnnnnn  n 


an 

n 


Pyramidal  block  of  1OO — 10  stacks  of  10  (side  view) 

5.  Bulk-Spaces:     The  storage  space  set  aside  for  the  bulk  of  an 
article,  and  from  which  supplies  are  drawn  for  issue  or  shipment  in 
large  quantities,  or  for  replenishment  of  issue-bins  and  reserve-bins. 

6.  Column:     A  vertical,  self-supporting,  regular  pile,  one  wide, 
one  deep,  two  or  more  high. 


n 
n 
n 


D 
n 
D 


n 


Front  view 


Column  of  5 


n 


Side  view 


7.     Course:     A  horizontal  layer  of  a  block  (cf.  the  courses  of  a 
brick  wall).     Courses  are  numbered  from  the  bottom  up. 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE 


305 


DD 

n  n 

DD 
DD 


n  n  en 

nn  n  nn 
nnnnn 
nnnnn 


End  view  Side  view 

5  courses  of  10  each  in  a  cubical  block  of  50 


D 

nn 
nnn 


nn  n 
nn 


n 


nnnnn 
nnnn     nnnnn 

End  view  Side  view 

4  courses  of  20,  15,  10,  and  f  respectively  in  a  pyramidal  block  of  50 

8.  Issue-Bins:  A  bin  from  which  supplies  are  ordinarily  issued 
or  assembled  for  delivery  or  shipment. 

§.  Item:  Any  one  kind  of  stores  to  be  put  in  one  place,  e.g., 
canned  corn.  No.  2  size  cans,  xyz  brand.  Difference  in  size,  shape, 
nature,  quality,  weight,  color,  make,  brand,  or  style,  will  generally 
determine  different  items. 

10.  Lot:    A  quantity  received  and  stowed  at  any  one  time,  e.g., 
50  cases,  24  in  case,  canned  corn,  No.  2  size  cans,  xyz  brand. 

11.  Pile:     A  heap,  irregular  in  shape.    Regular  piles  are  denned 
under  column,  stack,  and  block. 

12.  Platform:     A  level  surface  parallel  to  the  floor ;  a  platform 
may  be  either  large  or  small,  high  or  low,  movable  or  stationary. 
The  term  platform,  therefore,  includes  all  mezzanine  floors. 

13.  Rack:     A  framework  for  holding  articles  whose  principal 


306 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


dimensions  are  length  and  width — or  length  alone — such  as  metals 
in  bars ;  metals  in  sheets,  oars,  pipe,  etc. 

14.  Reserve-Bin:    A  bin  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  issue- 
bin,  from  which  the  issue-bin  draws  its  stock. 

15.  Row:     A  uniform  arrangement  of  bins  or  racks  extending 
from  main-aisle  to  wall.     Rows  are  single  and  double.     A  single 
row  is  placed  against  a  wall.     Double  rows  are  placed  back  to  back. 

16.  Stack:    A  self-supporting  regular  pile,  two  or  more  wide, 
one  deep,  two  or  more  high.     A  stack  may  be  either  cubical  or 
pyramidal. 


DD 
DD 

an 
an 
an 


a 
a 
a 
a 
a 


Front  view  Side  view 

Cubical  stack  of   10 


D 
DD 

nan 
anna 


a 
a 
a 


Front  view  Side  view 

Pyramidal  stack  of  10 

17.  Standard-Sample:  An  article  always  retained  in  the  issue- 
bin  or  rack.  The  standard-sample  should  carry  a  tag  bearing  the 
stock  number  and  the  catalogue  nomenclature  of  the  article,  and 
should  never  be  issued  except  by  written  authority  of  the  supply 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  307 

officer.     New  standard-samples  should  be  substituted  for  old  ones 
when  required. 

18.  Stowing:     The  putting  away  of  things,  usually  stores,  in 
their  proper  places  according  to  proper  method.     As  the  subject  of 
this  memorandum,  it  covers  the  larger  ground  of  removal  and  general 
rules  for  handling. 

19.  Tier:     Any  one  separate  part  of  a  column,  or  a  horizontal 
row  of  a  stack.    Tiers  are  numbered  in  the  order  of  their  stowing — 
from  the  bottom  up. 

D  DD 

n  nn 

D  an 

a  an 

a  an 

Front  view  Front  view 

5  tiers  of  i  each  in  a  column       5  tiers  of  2  each  in  a  cubical  stack 


nnn 

DDDD 

Front  view 
4  tiers  of  4,  3,  2,  and  i  respectively  in  a  pyramidal  stack 

20.  Unit:  A  quantity  easily  handled  or  normally  issued  at  one 
time:  e.g.,  Wholesale — i  case,  24  in  case,  canned  corn,  No.  2  size 
can,  xyz  brand.  Retail — i  can,  canned  corn,  No.  2  size  can,  xyz 
brand. 


3o8  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


FUNDAMENTALS 

"A  place  for  everything,  and  everything  properly  in  place." 

1.  Accessibility  of  items,  lots,   and  units,  without  rehandling. 
This  means:  (a)  Goods  will  be  stowed  in  issuable  units,     (b)   Each 
item  (and  each  lot  where  practicable)  will  be  kept  distinct.     There- 
fore a  unit  of  one  item  or  lot  will  not  be  stowed  on  top  of  or  in  front 
of  a  unit  of  a  different  item  or  lot.     (c)  Goods  will  be  placed  so  that 
the  greatest  number  of  individual  units  or  packages  will  show.    This 
facilitates  counting,  as  well  as  accessibility. 

Issuable  Units. — The  immediate  accessibility  of  each  lot  of  every 
item  only  emphasizes  in  a  different  way  the  fundamental  general 
purpose  of  stowing,  namely,  to  get  at  what  you  want  when  you  want 
it  with  the  minimum  expenditure  of  time  and  effort.  This  means 
that  goods  should  be  stowed  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  units  in 
which  they  will  be  issued,  even  though  this  requires  the  breaking  of 
the  units  in  which  they  are  received.  This  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
the  time  element  required  for  unpacking  is  less  important  when  the 
goods  are  first  received  than  when  they  are  called  for  issue.  As  a 
precaution  against  unnecessary  loss  from  depreciation,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  stock  should  be  kept  moving  by  always  using  the  old  lots 
first. 

2.  Flexibility  in  Arrangement. — This  is  secured  by  having  stor- 
age spaces  rectangular,  and  in  area  whole  multiples  of  a  standard 
rectangular  unit.    Bins,  platforms,  and  floor  spaces  will  then  be  inter- 
changeable. 

Unit  Storage  Spaces. — In  few  live  organizations  are  conditions 
the  same  year  after  year;  in  some,  the  conditions  change  materially 
season  by  season.  Hence  the  importance  of  flexibility  in  the  arrange- 
ment and  use  of  storage  equipment.  The  determination,  even  at  some 
effort,  of  a  standard  rectangular  storage  unit  as  the  basis  for  the 
lay-out  of  the  stores  plant  is  a  great  help  in  obtaining  this  flexibility. 
Bins,  platforms  and  floor  spaces  can  then  be  made  to  correspond  to 
this  unit  and  so  be  interchangeable.  Thus,  without  affecting  in  any 
way  the  general  plan  and  lay-out,  the  particular  equipment  in  use 
may  be  shifted  to  meet  varying  conditions. 

Bin  Subdivisions. — The  same  principle  applies  to  the  subdivi- 
sion of  bins  and  will  lead  to  the  adoption  of  a  standard  unit  bin  of 
such  inside  dimensions  that  it  will  hold  the  greatest  variety  of 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  309 

standard  removable  subdivisions.  A  bin  20  by  14  by  14  inches 
inside,  opening  on  the  first  two  dimensions,  has  been  proved  satis- 
factory for  a  large  proportion  of  naval  supplies. 

Emergency  Bins. — For  emergency  use,  bins  may  be  improvised  by 
stacking  empty  packing  cases  of  uniform  size  back  to  back.  Such 
double  rows  should  preferably  run  at  right  angles  to  the  long  side 
of  the  building. 

3.  Identification,    clear    and    complete,    of    every    item,    which 
means :  (a)  a  tag  for  each  lot ;  (b)  a  label  on  each  unit  or  package, 
preferably  on  the  end. 

Symbols. — The  clear  and  complete  identification  of  each  item  is 
equally  important.  The  same  item  must  not  be  called  by  different 
names  at  different  times ;  furthermore,  the  name  of  each  item  must  be 
so  distinctive  that  it  cannot  be  confused  with  any  other.  This  leads 
in  many  cases  to  the  careful  classification  and  symbolization  of  all 
items  in  stores.  The  symbol,  being  short,  distinct,  and  standing  for 
only  one  thing,  is  a  convenient  means  for  the  accurate  identification 
of  stores. 

Marks  Face  Out. — Identification  marks  on  packages  should  pref- 
erably face  out,  or  be  conspicuous.  Therefore  the  end  of  the  pack- 
age is  usually  the  best  place  so  that  when  stacked  the  largest  number 
of  labels  will  show,  and  furnish  a  check  against  packages  being  mis- 
placed. This  is  especially  important  where  goods  are  not  tagged. 
The  labeling  of  individual  packages  is  not  so  necessary  when  lots  are 
systematically  tagged  and  placed  in  definite  locations  indicated  by 
symbol  both  on  the  identification  tag  and  on  the  balance  records. 

4.  Location  of  an  item  governed  by:  (a)  difficulty  of  handling; 
(b)  quantity  to  be  carried ;  (c)  frequency  of  use ;  (d)  special  con- 
siderations, as  of  sensitiveness,  perishability  or  peculiar  similarity  to 
other  items;  (e)  safety  (floor  strength,  fire  hazard). 

General  Considerations. — The  elements  determining  the  location 
of  an  item  are  sometimes  conflicting.  Of  course,  a  large,  heavy  item, 
difficult  to  handle,  should  be  given  the  shortest  possible  haul.  Simi- 
larly, an  item  easy  to  handle  but  carried  in  large  quantities  and 
very  frequently  used,  should  be  in  a  convenient  location  with  short 
haul.  The  same  is  true  of  items  which,  when  issued,  have  to  be 
specially  measured,  such  as  bar-stock,  or  sirup  in  barrels. 

Special  Considerations. — There  may  be,  of  course,  special  con- 
siderations such  as  the  sensitiveness  of  explosives,  the  perishability  of 
meat  or  other  foodstuff,  or  peculiar  similarity,  such  as  of  pipe  and 


3io  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

bar-stock  which  would  clearly  point  to  the  necessity  of  stowing  those 
items  together.  Whether  the  location  under  those  circumstances  is 
most  convenient  is  generally  secondary  to  the  particular  equipment 
necessary  for  their  proper  care.  It  is  sometimes  found  economical  to 
stow  near  each  other  special  parts  or  articles  of  equipment  which  are 
regularly  issued  together  in  a  group.  It  is  also  desirable  to  keep 
unserviceable  articles  separated  from  serviceable. 

Safety. — The  stresses  which  floors  will  stand  must  of  course  be 
known  and  allowed  for.  Whether  fire-passages  (of  2  feet)  along 
all  walls  should  be  left,  depends  on  local  conditions  and  the  nature 
of  the  goods.  In  general,  fire-passages  are  more  necessary  with  block 
piling,  or  where  stacks  run  parallel  to  and  adjoin  the  walls.  Fire-pas- 
sages are  less  necessary  when  stacks,  with  side  aisles  between  every 
two,  run  at  right  angles  to  walls.  In  the  latter  case,  the  side  aisles 
give  direct  access  to  wall  space  every  few  feet,  and  packages  next  the 
wall  in  any  given  stack  may  be  easily  and  quickly  removed. 

5.  Methods,  defined  in  written  instructions,  of  placing  and 
removing  various  classes  of  items. 

a.  Uniformity — always  piling  the  same  item  the  same  way,  and 
in  such  a  way  that  each  full  column,  stack  or  block  will  contain  the 
same  quantity  as  each  other  full  column,  stack  or  block. 

b.  Distinct  separation  of  each  lot,  so  that  old  lot  may  be  used 
first. 

In  Writing. — The  importance  of  establishing  in  writing  some 
defined  methods  of  placing  and  removing  the  various  classes  of  items 
need  not  be  emphasized.  The  very  effort  to  determine  the  methods 
forces  attention  and  decision  for  the  time  being,  at  least,  on  the 
one  best  way  under  the  circumstances.  More  than  that,  it  is  true 
that  the  consistent  following  of  even  a  poor  standard  brings  better 
results  than  the  haphazard  and  uncertain  following  of  the  best  of 
standards.  The  more  completely  a  poor  rule  is  followed,  the 
more  clearly  will  its  failings  be  revealed  and  the  better  can  it  be 
revised. 

Neatness ;  Exceptions  Conspicuous. — Standard  methods  for  piling 
each  class  of  goods  will  insure  neatness  and  uniformity.  Then  the 
exceptions  to  good  piling,  by  their  very  conspicuousness,  will  be  their 
own  signal  for  correction.  "Publicity  is  a  potent  factor  in  keeping 
things  right."  Therefore,  unnecessary  covers,  doors,  and  other 
protections,  behind  which  wrong  practice  may  be  concealed,  should  be 
avoided. 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  311 

More  Accurate  Inspection  and  Count. — Besides  leading  to  preci- 
sion in  handling  and  making  carelessness  more  noticeable,  such  uni- 
formity greatly  facilitates  the  accuracy  and  speed  of  inspection  and 
count.  So  far  as  possible,  stores  should  indicate  their  own  count. 
Hence  the  importance  of  uniformly  regular  columns,  stacks,  and 
blocks.  This  is  the  chief  reason  for  preferring  cubical  to  pyramidal 
piling.  The  quantity  in  a  full  pyramid  may  be  calculated  by  mathe- 
matical formula  but  difficulties  are  apt  to  arise  as  soon  as  part  of  the 
pyramid  is  removed.  "How  much  is  left"  is  an  ail-important  ques- 
tion and  it  should  not  be  necessary  to  count  each  article  to  find  out. 
Piling  in  uniformly  regular  columns,  stacks,  and  blocks,  with  only 
one  last  block,  stack,  column  or  package  containing  an  odd  quantity, 
is  the  simple  solution  of  this  problem. 

Decimal  Units. — For  the  same  reason,  the  use  of  easily  calculated 
decimal  units  for  the  quantities  in  blocks,  stacks,  columns,  and  some- 
times packages,  is  desirable.  The  instruction  specifying  that  piling 
may  be  done  in  single  units  up  to  10  and  after  that  only  in  multiples 
of  5  illustrates  the  point. 

Double  Space. — The  allotment  to  each  regularly  carried  item  of 
double  the  space  needed  for  each  regular  lot  of  the  item  received  is, 
where  sufficient  space  is  available,  well  worth  while.  It  insures  ac- 
curacy and  simplicity  in  handling  the  different  lots,  each  being  kept 
separate  and  the  old  lot  always  being  used  first.  It  also  results  in  less 
frequent  need  of  locating  parts  of  the  same  item  in  different  places. 
Where  only  the  single  space  required  for  a  lot  is  reserved  for  it,  and  a 
new  lot  comes  before  the  old  lot  is  used  up,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
put  part,  if  not  all,  of  the  new  lot  somewhere  else,  there  being  no 
room  for  it  in  the  space  with  the  old  lot.  This  process,  repeated 
often  enough,  leads  to  a  constant  shifting  of  the  location  of  given 
items  and  results  in  confusion.  In  some  cases  where  the  storekeeper 
is  responsible  for  the  quantities  on  hand,  he  loses  sight  of  some  por- 
tions of  an  item  and  calls  for  more  before  he  really  needs  it.  This 
means  unnecessary  investment  and  the  added  liability  to  loss  from 
spoilage.  Some  plants  have  found  that  the  cost  of  the  double-space 
system  suggested  above  was  well  repaid  by  protection  against  such 
loss.  The  less  intelligent  and  skilled  the  help,  the  greater  is  the  use- 
fulness of  the  double  space  system.  It  is  more  nearly  "fool-proof." 


312  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

6.  Planning  new  areas. 

a.    The  listing  and  classification  of  all  items  according  to: 

1.  Measurements. 

2.  Difficulty  of  handling. 

3.  Frequency  of  use. 

4.  Special  considerations,  as  of  sensitiveness,  perisha- 

bility or  of  peculiar  similarity. 

5.  Quantities  to  be  carried. 

b.  Determination  of  proper  unit  storage  space. 

c.  Determination  of  proper  aisle  spaces. 

d.  Determination  of  proper  lay-out  of  storage  and  aisle 
space  with   general   location   of   items   and   calculation 
of  total  space  needed. 

e.  Lastly,  the  planning  of  structures   so  that  entrances, 
aisles,  posts,  platforms,  windows,  and  other  necessary 
features  will  not  interfere  with  but  will  facilitate  the 
most  desirable  lay-out  of  the  stores  themselves. 

The  importance  of  accomplishing  the  most  with  every  man-hour 
of  labor  as  well  as  every  dollar  of  expense  is  the  measure  of  the 
importance  of  careful  stowing.  Hours  of  labor  and  dollars  of  ex- 
pense can  be  avoided  by  intelligent  planning  ahead.  The  store- 
keeper must  predetermine  and  control  his  results  instead  of  letting 
conditions  take  him  by  surprise  and  find  him  unprepared.  Where  he 
has  the  planning  of  new  storage  areas  he  will  find  it  pays,  for  best 
results  and  a  minimum  waste  of  space  and  operating  expense,  to  ob- 
serve the  sequence  above. 

7.  Spaces^  preferably  marked,  reserved  exclusively  for 

a.  Moving. 

Aisles   should   preferably   be   straight,   and   only   wide 
enough  for  actual  requirements. 

b.  Stowing. 

c.  Receiving. 

When  necessary  to  hold  material  awaiting  disposition. 

d.  Assembling. 

When  necessary  to  hold  material  awaiting  delivery. 

e.  Shipping. 

When  necessary  to  hold  material  awaiting  shipment. 

Aisles  Must  Be  Kept  Clear. — The  real  reason  for  taking  pains 
that  stowing  of  stores  shall  be  orderly  and  systematic  is  to  be  able  to 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  313 

get  at  what  is  wanted  when  it  is  wanted,  with  the  least  possible 
expenditure  of  time  and  effort.  This  involves  having  what  you 
want  on  hand  in  sufficient  quantities  and  knowing  where  it  is.  The 
only  way  of  getting  at  what  is  wanted  is  by  means  of  the  aisles 
and  passageways  provided  for  the  purpose.  It  is  axiomatic,  there- 
fore, that  the  aisles  should  be  of  only  such  width  as  is  required  for 
the  necessary  passing  and  handling  of  the  goods  to  be  stored.  It  is 
equally  fundamental  that  they  cannot  be  obstructed  by  things  left 
standing  in  them  or  by  the  projection  of  things  stored  along  their 
margins.  The  delay  caused  by  unexpectedly  encountering  a  blocked 
aisle  is  always  wasteful, — likewise,  the  danger  of  damage  to  goods 
projecting  from  the  proper  bounds  of  either  storage  spaces  or  con- 
veyors is  obvious. 

Aisle  Widths. — Aisles  should  be  planned  according  to  their  use 
and  the  size  of  conveyors  or  materials  to  be  handled  in  them.  Main 
aisles  for  two-way  passing  of  trucks  may  need  to  be  six  or  eight  feet, 
or  even  more  in  width,  according  to  conditions.  Side,  connecting 
aisles,  or  those  straight  through  the  building,  for  one-way  pass- 
ing, need  be  only  comfortably  wider  than  the  trucks  to  pass 
through.  Blind  side  aisles,  ending  in  a  wall,  if  for  trucking,  normally 
should  be  wide  enough  to  allow  the  truck  to  turn  around  safely. 
This  is  especially  true  where  four  wheel  or  elevating  platform  trucks 
are  to  be  used.  Thirty  inches  is  a  standard  width  for  aisles  between 
bins  or  shelves  where  the  contents  are  package  goods  carried  by 
hand. 

Boundary  Lines. — Showing  the  boundary  lines  of  aisles  and  like- 
wise of  storage,  receiving,  assembling,  and  shipping  places  is  impor- 
tant in  order  that  there  may  be  no  vagueness  about  the  limits  of  the 
spaces  required  for  each.  The  more  permanent  and  conspicuous  these 
boundary  lines  are  made,  the  better.  In  buildings,  lines  two  inches 
wide  of  black  or  red  paint,  or  of  strips  of  zinc  tacked  to  the  floor, 
have  been  used  effectively.  The  right  amount  of  space  in  a  well 
planned  stores  layout  is  essential.  More  than  this  amount  is  waste- 
ful, whereas  less  than  this  amount  for  each  particular  purpose  leads 
inevitably  to  congestion,  and  congestion  must  be  avoided. 

INSTRUCTIONS 

Stowing. — i.  Counting. — All  goods  will  be  counted  before  or 
during  stowing,  and  the  quantity  entered  on  the  tag. 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

2.     Storage  Space. — Stores  are  stowed  only  in  the  spaces  reserved 
for  the  purpose.     This  means  that  window  sills,  ledges,  floors,  aisle 


RowE 

Old  Lot  1  originally  occupied  all     this  row  F  and  (see  top  line  row  G) 
Mmri 

Remainder  of  old  Lot  1  occu-  _    A 

piesthis  half  of  Row  F  when  new  I*t  2  arrives.   Lot  2  is 

put  in  this  half  of  this  row  F  and 

Side  Aisle 

this  half  of  this  row  (G  Lot  1). 

RowG 
Aisle 

this  fills   up   all   of  this  row     G  (Lot  2). 

"      RowH 

FIGURE  1 

spaces,  etc.,  are  not  to  be  used  either  permanently  or  temporarily  for 
keeping  goods  unless  the  tag  on  the  goods  bears  the  signature  of  the 

Wall 

Row  7  8  I  Row 

Side  Aide          10  11    :        3          Side  Aisle 

Row  0  12  2          Row 

Row  4          Row 

fe 

Side  Aisle  |  6  Side  Aisle 

Row  8  5  Row 

Row  Row 

FIGURE  2 


proper  official  authorizing  the  use  of  such  space  for  that  purpose. 
Tools  or  equipment  in  regular  use  in  store  rooms  will  be  provided 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  315 

with  special  places,  marked  so  as  to  show  the  purpose  for  which 
reserved. 

3.  Space  for  One  Item. — The  space  allotted  to  any  one  item  will 
be  enough  to  hold  the  maximum  expected  on  hand  at  one  time,  with 
each  lot  distinct.     If  the  normal  lot  would  occupy   \l/2   rows,  and 
usually  arrives  when  one-third  of  the  previous  lot   (or  l/2  row)   is 
left,  the  total  space  reserved  for  the  item  would  be  2  rows.     (See 
Fig.  i,  p.  314.) 

4.  Placing. — The  placing  of  any  item  of  stores  depends  on  the 
shape  and  character  of  the  article,  and  the  nature  of  the  storage  place. 
On  the  floor  are  placed  cases  of  such  size  and  weight  as  would  be  apt 
to  break  a  platform  in  handling.    All  other  stores  except  those  stowed 
in  bins  or  on  racks  are  placed  on  platforms.    These  are  largely  goods 
of  bulk  and  weight,  such  as  sometimes  require  more  than  one  man  to 
handle  and  pile   (e.g.,  barrels,  bags,  bales,  bundles,  and  ordinary 
cases  and  crates).    Small  stores,  such  as  those  in  small  boxes,  cartons, 
and  packages,  and  loose  supplies  are  put  in  bins.     Articles  of  un- 
wieldy length,  like  iron  piping,  are  placed  on  racks. 

5.  Accessibility. — Goods  will  be  placed  so  as  to  be  as  easily  ac- 
cessible as  possible,  those  more  frequently  used  being  in  the  handier 
locations. 

6.  Minimum  Handling. — Consistent  with  the  above,  they  will 
be  placed  so  as  to  require  as  little  handling  as  possible  in  receiving, 
stowing  and  removing.     Old  lots  should  not  have  to  be  disturbed 
when  new  lots  are  placed.     Other  things  being  equal,  heavy  bulky 
goods  will  have  the  shortest  haul. 

7.  Rows. — In  stowing  a  bulky  item  of  stores  in  quantity,  effort 
will  be  made  to  concentrate  it.     Thus  two  rows  opposite  each  other 
(across  a  side  aisle)   will  be  filled  in  preference  to  two  adjacent 
rows.     Any  excess  over  two  rows  full  may  then  be  stowed  in  the 
aisle  between.    This  saves  space  to  almost  the  extent  of  solid  block 
piling,  yet  preserves  the  desirably  flexible  row  arrangement  with  its 
maximum  of  direct  accessibility. 

8.  Side  Aisles. — Side  aisles  may  be  used  for  stowing  only  when 
the  rows  on  either  side  are  full  of  the  same  material. 

9.  Main  Aisles. — Main  aisle  space  adjoining  a  wall  may  be 
filled  out  to  parallel  full  rows  and  aisles  of  the  same  material  on 
either  side.     Platforms  will,  when  practicable,  be  placed  for  goods 
stowed  in  aisles. 


316  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Figure  2,  page  314,  illustrates  the  order  in  which  rows  and  aisles 
may  be  filled  with  a  large  lot  of  one  item.  Removals  will  be  in 
reverse  order.  See  paragraph  3,  page  320,  under  "Removing." 

10.  Spoilage. — Articles   should   never  be   stowed  in  a  position 
which  might  cause  injury  to  them.     Thus  sheets  of  unprinted  paper 
should  lie  flat  and  brooms  should  stand  on  handle  end,  or  hang. 
Likewise,  placing  articles  so  they  project  from  the  edge  of  a  bin  or 
platform  is  to  be  avoided.     In  general,  articles  will  be  kept  off  the 
floor  or  the  ground.     In  placing  items  subject  to  deterioration  from 
heat  and  dryness  or  from  cold  and  dampness,  it  will  be  remembered 
that  air  near  the  ceiling  is  usually  warmer  and  dryer  than  near  the 
floor. 

11.  Height. — In  stowing  goods,  the  greatest  economy  of  space 
is  secured  by  tiering  in  cubical  stacks  and  blocks  as  high  as  is  con- 
sistent with  stability,  thus  leaving  a  maximum   area   for   different 
groups  and  kinds  of  articles.    Where  economy  of  space  is  not  critical, 
economy  of  time  and  effort  are  more  important,  and  goods  will  be 
tiered  only  as  high  as  an  ordinary  man  can  reach.     Five  feet  to  the 
top  of  the  next  to  last  tier  is  a  normal  height  for  packages  not  ex- 
ceeding 100  Ibs.    As  far  as  possible  men  should  work  singly,  rather 
than  in  groups. 

12.  Shape;  Cubical  versus  Pyramidal. — Where  it  is  possible  to 
choose  between  cubical  and  pyramidal  piling  of  goods,  the  cubical 
method  will  be  given  preference. 

Advantages  of  cubical  piling: 

1.  More  economical  in  use  of  space. 

2.  Easier  to  keep  uniform  and  regular. 

3.  Easier  to  inspect. 

4.  Easier  to  count. 

5-     Less  spoilage  from  weather,  if  uncovered. 

Advantages  of  pyramidal  piling: 

1.  Simpler  and  easier  to  secure  stable  tiering  of  cylindrical  or 
other  rolling  articles,  such  as  shells,  by  bracing  the  bottom  tier  only 
of  each  stack.     Cubical  tiering  of  such  goods  requires  bracing  the 
stack  all  the  way  up. 

2.  Easier  to  cover  from  weather,  because  of  its  shape   like  a 
peaked  roofo 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  317 

Where  pyramidal  piling  is  a  necessity, 
No.  in  full  stack  = 

No.  on  bottom  tier  x  (No.  of  tiers  -(-  l) 


D 
DD 


D 


nnnc 
nnnn 


For  a  full  pyramidal  stack  with  5  in  bottom  tier 

5X(5+0      5x6      30 
No.  in  stack  =  —      = =  —  =15 

2  22 

The  number  in  any  block,  whether  pyramidal  or  cubical,  will  be 
the  number  in  one  full  stack  times  the  number  of  full  stacks  in  the 
block. 

13.  Uniformity. — Full  columns,  stacks  or  blocks  of  any  one  item 
will  be  kept  uniform  for  that  item.     Only  the  last  column,  stack  or 
block  may  remain  incomplete,  containing  odd  quantities.     This  will 
add  both  to  neatness,  and  to  ease  and  accuracy  in  counting. 

14.  Group  Piling. — Stores  are  piled  singly  or  in  multiples  of 
five.     Goods  may  be  piled  singly  up  to  ten  in  a  column.     Beyond 
this  the  columns  are  made  as  high  as  the  space  will  permit  but  of 
whole  groups  of  five  only.    Groups  are  not  broken  to  fill  in  a  remain- 
ing space   too   small  for  a   whole  group.     Thus  every  column  of 
articles  small  enough  to  be  piled  in  groups  of  five  will  contain  some 
multiple  of  five  and  will  be  uniform  for  that  article.     For  instance, 
if  a  bin  holds  24  packages  of  letterheads  piled  snug  to  the  top,  the 
column  will  be  made  of  20  packages  only,  viz.,  4  groups  of  5  each. 

15.  Stowing  Area. — In  any  area  to  be  filled,  such  as  a  platform 
unit,  stowing  is  commenced  at  the  back  left-hand  corner,  and  brought 
forward,  each  row  of  goods  being  completed  to  the  front  before  a 
new  row  is  started.     Tiering  is  done  as  soon  as  the  nature  of  the 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


nnnn 
un 


n 


nnn 
n 


nn 


nn 
n 


nn 
nn 


nn 
nn 


nnnnn 

Correct  method  of  piling 

44    in     l     stack 

(front  view) 


D 
D 

DD 
]D 


n 
nnnn 

nnnn 
nnnn 
nnnn 
nnnn 
nnnn 


nnnn 


Incorrect   method   of   pil- 
ing 44  in  l  stack 
(front  view) 


goods  permits  and  as  high  as  possible  so  long  as  the  stacks  are  stable, 
the  uniform  groups  are  preserved,  and  the  stack  does  not  come  too 
near  the  ceiling.  Space  will  be  left  for  the  proper  working  of  the 
sprinkler  pipes,  and  for  properly  removing  (such  as  by  upending)  the 
goods  on  the  top  tier. 

16.  Stowing  Volume. — In  any  cubic  space  to  be  filled,  such  as  a 
bin,  stowing  is  commenced  at  the  back  left-hand  corner,  and  carried 
on  vertically  until  one  column  is  completed.  This  is  made  the  first 
of  a  row  of  such  columns  brought  to  the  front  and  completed.  The 
second  row  or  columns  will  commence,  as  did  the  first,  in  the  farthest 
left-hand  corner  of  the  remaining  available  space,  and  be  built  up 
and  forward  in  the  same  manner. 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  319 

17.  Separation  of  Lots. — Different  items  or  different  lots  of  the 
same  item  will  be  kept  distinct.    If  placed  in  the  same  storage  space, 
they  will  be  separated  by  a  space  of  at  least  one  inch  if  in  bins,  or 
three  inches  if  on  platforms.    Each  lot  of  each  item  has  its  own  sep- 
arate tag  and  lot  number. 

18.  Direction. — Goods  will  be  placed  all  one  way  unless  for 
stability  it  is  necessary  to  reverse  or  cross-pile.     Reversing  will  be 
done  singly  or  in  groups,  according  as  the  goods  are  piled  singly  or  in 
groups,  the  same  dimensions,  however,  lying  the  same  way.     Cross- 
piling,  or  laying  goods  in  each  tier  or  course  at  right  angles  to  those 
just  below,  while  increasing  stability,  decreases  accessibility  and  sure- 
ness  of  count.     As  stability  is  generally  less  vital  than  accessibility 
and  flexibility,  cross-piling  will  be  resorted  to  only  in  special  cases. 
Where  ventilation  is  required,  as  in  piling  lumber,  cross-bars  separat- 
ing each  course  will  be  used.    Thus  the  goods  in  all  the  courses 
may  still  lie  all  one  way.     The  best  way  in  general  for  goods  to  lie 
is  with  their  ends  out  towards  the  aisle  into  which  they  will  be  with- 
drawn.   If,  however,  space  is  economized  to  a  marked  degree  (at  least 
25  per  cent)  by  placing  the  goods  in  some  other  way,  it  may  be  done. 

19.  Labels. — Labels,  or  other  means  of  identification,  will  be 
placed  all  one  way,  showing  outward  if  consistent  with  other  rules. 

20.  Wrappings. — Articles    with    defective    wrapping    will    be 
placed  last,  in  order  that  they  may  be  removed  first.     The  person 
stowing  goods  is  responsible  for  seeing  that  the  tying  or  wrapping  on 
packages  is  in  as  good  condition  as  his  facilities  enable  him  to  secure. 
This  includes  the  putting  on  of  new  wrappings  when  necessary  and 
feasible. 

21.  Maximum. — The  maximum  quantity  ordinarily  stowed  will 
occupy  not  more  than  75  per  cent  of  the  space  available.     The  re- 
maining space  is  reserved  for  times  of  special  need. 

Removing. —  i.  Parts  of  One  Lot. — In  removing  goods  from 
storage,  in  any  one  lot  the  last  goods  to  be  put  in  place  are  removed 
first,  and  further  removals  are  made  in  just  the  reverse  order  to 
that  in  which  they  were  placed.  This  means  the  cleaning  up  of  in- 
complete before  complete  columns,  stacks  and  blocks  are  touched. 

2.  More  than  One  Lot. — In  the  case  of  more  than  one  lot  of  any 
one  item,  the  lots  are  drawn  from  in  order  of  age  commencing  with 
the  oldest,  unless  otherwise  specified  on  the  issue.  Not  until  all  the 
goods  of  one  lot  are  removed  from  any  part  of  a  storage  space  and 
the  tag  removed,  is  that  part  available  for  stowing  a  new  lot. 


320 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 


3.  Goods  Concentrated  in  Aisles. — Where  goods  have  been  con- 
centrated by  stowage  in  side  aisles  between  regular  storage  rows  (see 
paragraphs  7-9  under  "Stowing"),  removals  will  be  made  first  from 
aisle  spaces.     No  goods  will  be  removed  from  a  regular  row  until 
adjoining  aisle  spaces  have  been  entirely  cleared. 

4.  Pyramidal  Blocks. — Removals  from  a  pyramidal  block  will 
not  be  from  the  side  slopes  or  from  along  the  top,  but  will  be  stack 
by  stack  from  the  front.    Thus  there  will  be  not  more  than  one  in- 
complete stack  at  any  one  time,  all  stacks  behind  the  front  one  being 
complete.    Removals  from  any  one  stack  will  be  tier  by  tier  from  the 
top,  so  as  not  to  disturb  existing  stability,  or  any  braces  at  the  bottom 
tier. 


D 


nnn 

nnnn 

nnnnn 

Full  Stack  of  15 

nnnn 
nnnn 

Correct  removal  of  6,  leaving  9 


nn 

nnn 

nnnn 

Incorrect  removal  of  6,  leaving  9 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  321 

WAREHOUSING  OF  MERCHANDISE  * 

To  the  general  merchandise  subdivision  of  the  American  Warehouse- 
men s  Association: 

GENTLEMEN  :  In  the  performance  of  the  duties  assigned  to  your 
Committee2  they  have  followed  the  principle  laid  down  in  the  1918 
Report,  that  their  work  should  be  strictly  confined  to  preparing  a 
standardized  basis  for  rates  from  which  the  individual  warehouse- 
man could  compute  rates  that  would  be  equitable  as  between  dif- 
ferent commodities  in  his  warehouse ;  rates  that  would  produce  the 
same  net  revenue  from  each  and  every  class  of  goods  whether  stored 
in  bulk  or  in  assortment,  in  quantity  or  in  small  lots.  They  have  as- 
sumed that  not  only  was  it  no  part  of  their  duty  to  attempt  to  pro- 
duce uniformity  of  price  as  between  different  warehouses,  but  that 
it  was  imperative  they  do  nothing  that  would  indicate  or  suggest 
a  combination  to  establish  such  uniformity;  to  do  so,  whether  or  not 
it  could  be  construed  as  a  combination  in  restraint  of  trade,  would  be 
directly  contrary  to  the  evident  intent  with  which  they  were  ap- 
pointed. 

It  has  appeared  to  the  Committee  that  in  view  of  the  increase  in 
cost,  both  of  construction  and  operation,  the  growing  demand  for 
services  other  than  simple  storage  and  handling,  and  the  great  ad- 
vances we  have  made  in  our  knowledge  and  understanding  of  ware- 
house expenses,  customs  and  economics,  their  first  and  most  pressing 
duty  was  to  revise  and  bring  up  to  date  the  1918  Report.  Valuable 
as  that  report  was  when  made,  it  is  already  out  of  date  and  almost 
obsolete  and  in  the  present  report  they  have  endeavored  to  make  it 
as  of  September,  1920. 

The  theory  of  the  back  piling  of  goods  in  assortment  has  been 
abandoned  for  the  reason  that  the  vast  majority  of  building  laws  and 
regulations  do  not  permit  overloading  any  floor  space  to  counter- 
balance underload  or  vacancy  on  adjoining  space. 

The  car-lot  and  assortment  system  has  been  replaced  by  the  lot- 
unit  system  for  the  reason  that  existing  railroad  classifications  are 
found  to  be  inequitable  and  indefensible  when  applied  to  goods  in 

1  Report  of  the  Central  Bureau  Committee,  General  Merchandise  Sub- 
division, American  Warehousemen's  Association,  1920. 

2 The  committee  was  composed  of  the  following:  T.  E.  Witters,  chair- 
man, Baltimore,  Md. ;  John  Bekins,  vice-chairman,  Omaha,  Neb.;  C.  W. 
Macdonald,  Chicago,  111.;  Edwin  Morton,  New  York,  N.  Y. ;  S.  G.  Spear, 
Boston,  Mass.;  George  Hamley,  Minneapolis,  Minn.;  S.  H.  Verrall,  Chicago, 
111.;  D.  L.  Tilly,  New  York,  N.  Y.;  E.  H.  Bacon,  Louisville,  Ky. ;  R.  W. 
Dietrich,  New  Orleans,  La. 


322  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

warehouse,  and  several  other  minor  changes  have  been  made  for 
similar  reasons. 

Your  Committee  realize  that  this  report  will  appear  complicated 
to  a  novice  in  warehousing,  but  that  is  inevitable.  Just  as  an  engi- 
neer requires  a  knowledge  of  mathematics,  a  lawyer  a  knowledge  of 
law,  a  banker  a  knowledge  of  finance,  so  a  warehouseman  requires  a 
knowledge  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  his  business,  and  none  of 
these  may  be  acquired  without  study.  There  is  no  royal  road  to 
learning;  no  warehousemen's  guide  can  be  prepared  that  would  en- 
able a  neophyte  to  become  a  warehouseman  without  preparation,  ex- 
perience and  study,  and  as  Mr.  Dooley  says,  "  'tis  better  so."  This 
report  is  of  value  only  to  those  warehousemen  who  "want  to  know" 
and  are  willing  to  work  for  knowledge.  Your  Committee  have 
worked  long  and  hard  to  prepare  it,  but  their  labor  will  have  been 
in  vain  unless  you  are  willing  to  master  and  apply  the  results  so 
far  as  they  are  directly  applicable  to  your  particular  business,  and 
to  continue  to  modify  them  as  your  individual  needs  may  require. 

There  have  been  five  meetings  of  the  Committee  during  the  year, 
at  Atlantic  City,  February  2,  3,  and  4;  at  Pittsburgh,  May  17,  18, 
and  19;  at  Minneapolis,  July  13,  14,  and  15;  at  Louisville,  October 
4,  5,  6,  and  7;  and  at  Boston,  October  20  and  21;  also  numerous 
meetings  of  subcommittees  and  conferences  of  individual  members. 
Messrs.  Jacobson  of  the  New  York  Bureau,  Carruth  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Association,  and  Criss  of  the  Central  Bureau  sat  with  the 
Committee  at  every  meeting  and  rendered  invaluable  assistance,  and 
the  General  Bureau  Committee  has  been  represented  at  every  meeting 
by  its  chairman  and  one  or  more  other  members. 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

Standard  pile  is  a  pile  containing  the  greatest  quantity  of  a 
commodity  that  can  be  practically  stored  in  bulk,  not  exceeding  Sl/3 
feet  high  nor  250  pounds  per  square  foot  of  floor  space  occupied. 

Lot  unit  (L.  U.)  is  the  quantity  of  a  commodity  contained  in  a 
standard  pile  covering  120  square  feet. 

Height  of  standard  pile  is  the  theoretical  height  of  the  standard 
pile  as  computed  from  the  gross  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  the  com- 
modity in  pile.  When  it  is  not  practical  to  pile  as  high  as  the  theo- 
retical point  indicates,  then  the  practical  height  is  substituted. 

Floor  load  is  the  weight  of  a  pile  of  goods  per  square  foot  of  floor 
space  occupied. 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  323 

Index  is  the  number  of  square  feet  of  floor  space  occupied  by  a 
package  in  pile  when  stored  to  the  maximum  practical  pile  height 
(not  exceeding  8ya  feet),  weight  not  considered. 

Density  is  the  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  a  commodity. 

Assortment  is  the  term  used  to  describe  a  lot  of  goods  containing 
more  than  one  mark,  brand  or  sign  to  be  stored  and  accounted  for 
separately. 

Pile  space  is  the  floor  space  actually  occupied  by  a  pile  of  goods 
exclusive  of  entrance  aisles  made  necessary  by  assortment  or  indi- 
vidual package  delivery. 

Available  space  is  the  total  floor  space  inside  of  walls  after  de- 
ducting elevators,  stairways,  office,  shipping,  and  laborers'  room. 

Occupiable  space  is  the  available  space  less  main,  or  permanent, 
aisles  and  columns. 

Gross  space  is  based  on  outside  measurement  of  building  and  in- 
cludes space  occupied  by  walls. 

Honeycomb  is  the  state,  or  condition,  of  a  pile  when  partial 
delivery  has  reduced  the  number  of  packages  in  pile  without  propor- 
tionately reducing  the  floor  space  occupied. 

Individual  package  delivery,  sometimes  called  "Serial  Number 
Delivery,"  is  assortment  carried  to  its  extreme,  wherein  every  pack- 
age must  be  stored  and  accounted  for  separately. 

Base  class  is  computed  on  not  less  than  a  lot  unit  of  one  mark, 
brand,  or  size  to  be  stored  and  accounted  for  separately. 

Productive  labor  cost  is  the  wage  cost  of  laborers  and  checkers 
while  actually  engaged  in  an  operation  for  which  a  charge  is  made. 


STANDARD    WAREHOUSE    RULES    AND    REGULATIONS 

^1.     Packages. — The  warehouse  undertakes  to  store  and  deliver 
goods  only  in  the  original  packages  in  which  they  are  received. 

2.  Tender  for  Storage. — All  goods  for  storage  are  to  be  de- 
livered at  the  warehouse  properly  marked  and  packed  for  handling, 
and  the  storer  shall  furnish  at  or  prior  to  such  delivery  a  manifest 
showing  marks,  brands  or  sizes  to  be  kept  and  accounted  for  sep- 
arately.    Otherwise  the  goods  will  be  stored  in  bulk  or  lots  at  the 
discretion  of  the  warehouse  and  will  be  billed  accordingly. 

3.  Warehouse  Receipts. — A  warehouse  receipt  will  be  issued  on 
each  lot  of  goods  stored.    No  charge  will  be  made  for  the  issuance  of 
non-negotiable  receipts. 

4.  Storage  Periods. — Unless  otherwise  provided,  all  commodities 
are  stored  on  month-to-month  contracts,  and  the  warehouse  reserves 


324  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

the  right  to  require  the  removal  of  any  goods  within  thirty  days  from 
next  storage  date.  Only  such  notice  as  is  reasonable  or  possible  under 
the  circumstances  is  required  on  perishable  or  hazardous  goods. 

5.  Storage  Rates  and  Expiration. — Storage   rates  cover  ware- 
house space  required  for  one  month  or  fraction  thereof,  dating  from 
receipt  of  the  first  package,  and  are  charged  in  advance  from  that 
date  up  to  but  not  including  same  date  of  the   following  month. 
When  the  final  expiring  date  falls  on  a  Sunday  or  legal  holiday, 
the  next  business  day  shall  be  deemed  the  expiring  day. 

6.  Transfers  New  Contract. — When  goods  in  storage  are  trans- 
ferred on  the  books  of  the  warehouse  from  one  party  to  another,  a  new 
contract  is  made  thereby  and  a  new  storage  date  established  on  the 
date  of  such  transfer. 

7.  Bonded    Stores. — Due    to    the    extra    expense    of    operating 
bonded  warehouses,  an  extra  charge  over  regular  storage,  handling 
and  other  rates  will  be  made  for  bonded  merchandise. 

8.  Insurance. — Storage  rates  do  not  include  insurance  of  any 
kind  and  insurance  rates,  if  quoted,  are  not  guaranteed. 

9.  Limited  Liability. — Liability  of  the  warehouse  for  loss  of  or 
damage  to  goods  stored  shall  in  no  case  exceed  eight  dollars  ($8)  per 
cubic  foot  or  twenty-five  (25)  cents  per  pound,  according  as  weight 
or  size  determines  the  rate,  unless  excess  value  is  declared  by  the  cus- 
tomer at  the  time  the  goods  are  stored.     A  charge  will  be  made  for 
such  excess  value. 

10.  Responsibility   of    Warehouse. — The    responsibility   of   the 
warehouse  is  defined  by  the  laws  of  the  State. 

All  goods  are  stored  at  owner's  risk  of  loss  or  damage  by  civil 
or  military  authority,  or  insurrection,  riot,  strikes,  enemies  of  the 
government,  sprinkler  leakage,  flood,  wind,  storm,  fire,  moth,  corrup- 
tion, depredation  of  rats,  mice,  or  vermin,  change  of  temperature, 
or  by  any  cause  beyond  the  control  of  the  warehouse. 

The  warehouse  will  assume  no  responsibility  for  concealed  dam- 
age, leakage  of  liquids,  or  for  losses  in  weight  by  reason  of  defective 
or  insufficient  containers  whether  occurring  when  goods  are  on  storage 
or  are  being  handled,  nor  for  failure  to  detect  or  remedy  the  same. 

All  storage,  handling  or  other  charges  must  be  paid  on  goods  lost, 
damaged  or  destroyed. 

11.  Access  to  Goods. — Customers,  their  representatives  or  work- 
men will  not  be  allowed  to  have  access  to  or  work  on  goods  in  store 
unless   accompanied   by   a   warehouse   employee,   for   whose   time   a 
charge  will  be  made. 

12.  Delivery  Orders.— Orders  signed  in  full  and  in  writing  will 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  325 

be  required  for  the  delivery  of  all  goods,  and  this  reasonable  precau- 
tion shall  be  taken  by  the  owner  in  order  that  the  warehouse  may 
know  definitely  the  goods  desired  and  make  proper  delivery. 

13.  Excess  Deliveries. — A  charge  will  be  made  for  an  excessive 
number  of  deliveries  from  any  one  lot. 

14.  Time  for  Effecting  Delivery. — When   goods  in   store  are 
ordered   out,    a   reasonable   time   shall   be   given   the   warehouse   to 
execute  the  order.     Inability  to  effect  delivery  before  expiring  storage 
dates   shall   not   prevent  assessing  the   storage   charge   for   another 
month. 

15.  Handling. — Handling  charges  cover  only  the  ordinary  labor 
and  duties  incidental  to  receiving  goods  at  warehouse  door,  stowing 
and  delivering  at  warehouse  door,  and  do  not  include  loading  or  un- 
loading cars,  trucks,  or  other  vehicles.     Handling  charges  will  be 
billed  with  the  storage  charge  for  the  first  month. 

16.  Unloading  Cars. — Charges  for  unloading  cars  include  the 
use  of  tracks,  platforms,  etc.,  and  the  labor  of  unloading. 

17.  Loading  Cars. — Charges  for  loading  cars  cover  the  use  of 
tracks,  platforms,  etc.,  and  the  labor  of  loading  cars. 

18.  Demurrage. — Demurrage  will  not  be  absorbed  by  the  ware- 
house, but  diligence  will  be  used  to  load  or  unload  cars  promptly. 

19.  Distribution. — Distribution  charges  cover  the  checking  out 
and  delivery  of  goods  at  car  within  the  time  specified  by  the  ware- 
house.    Previous  to  the  unloading,  notice  shall  be  given  stating  the 
number  of  packages  wanted,  brands,  sizes,  etc.,  and  to  whom  they  are 
to  be  delivered.     The  charge  for  distribution  is  additional  to  the 
car  unloading. 

2D.  Dray  age. — Drayage  charges  cover  ordinary  cartage  of  goods 
and  delivery  at  platform  or  sidewalk.  When  delivery  is  required  in 
basement  or  on  upper  floors  or  other  inconvenient  places,  an  extra 
charge  will  be  made. 

21.  Shipping. — Shipping  charges  cover  billing,  marking  or  tag- 
ging,   procuring   bills   of    lading   and    mailing    same.      A    separate 
charge  will  be  made  for  each  express  or  parcel  post  shipment. 

22.  Furnishing  Space,  Light,  Tools,  etc. — Whenever  warehouse 
space,  light,  power,  tools,  or  material  of  any  sort  are  supplied  or 
loaned  by  the  warehouse,  a  charge  will  be  made  therefor. 

23.  Weighing,   Sampling,    Coopering,   etc. — A   charge   will    be 
made   for   weighing,   sampling,   coopering   and  other   miscellaneous 
services  when  performed  by  the  warehouse. 

24.  Extra  Labor. — Charges   will   be   assessed   for   extra   labor 
furnished  by  the  warehouse,  whether  common,  skilled,  or  clerical. 


326  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

25.  Taking  Down,  Repilmg,  etc.— When  goods  are  taken  down 
and  replied  in  store  for  weigher  or  other  convenience  of  customer, 
the  handling  charge  of  receiving  and  delivering  will  be  applied. 

26.  Collections.— A  charge  will  be  made  for  making  collections 
for  customers. 

27.  Cash  Items  Advanced. — Freight  and  other  cash  items  ad- 
vanced become  a  lien  on  the  goods  stored,  and  are  payable  on  demand. 
A  charge  for  this  service  will  be  made.    Deliveries  or  transfers  from 
such  lots  will  not  be  made  until  lien  is  satisfied. 

28.  Stock  Statements. — Stock  statements  submitted  in  duplicate 
by  customer  will  be  checked  with  the  books  of  the  warehouse  without 
charge. 

A  charge  will  be  made  for  warehouse  checking  or  stock  taking. 

29.  Gross   Weights. — When  rates  are  quoted  by  weight,  they 
will  be  computed  on  the  gross  weight. 

30.  Ton. — The   term   "ton"    when   used   means    two   thousand 
(2,000)  pounds. 

31.  Minimum  Charges. — Minimum  ratings  will  be  applied  on 
storage,  handling  or  other  service  charges. 

32.  Postage. — Postage  and  addressed  envelopes  must  be  fur- 
nished by  customers  requiring  notification  of  shipments  or  deliveries 
and  reports. 

33.  Charges  Due. — All  charges  become  due  when  billed. 

34.  Labor  Disputes,  Strikes,  etc. — The  warehouse  will  not  be 
responsible  for  delays  in  receiving  or  delivering  merchandise  by  rea- 
son of  labor  disputes,  strikes,  or  any  other  causes  beyond  the  control 
of  the  warehouse. 

35.  State  Laws. — Nothing  herein  contained  shall  be  deemed  a 
waiver  or  modification  of  the  rights  of  the  warehouse  under  the  laws 
of  the  State. 


STANDARD  BASIS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION  OF  GOODS   FOR    STORAGE 

The  infinite  variety  of  packages  offered  for  storage,  varying  in 
weight  from  ten  to  three  thousand  pounds,  in  size  from  one-half  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet,  and  in  shape  from  perfect  sym- 
metry to  the  irregularity  of  an  uncrated  piece  of  machinery;  the 
wide  variation  in  the  nature  of  the  commodities  and  the  consequent 
different  requirements  as  to  care,  location,  and  handling,  and  the 
great  difference  in  value,  all  combine  to  make  classification  a  com- 
plicated and  difficult  task.  We  believe,  however,  practically  all  of 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  327 

the  goods  offered  for  storage  can  be  properly  classified,  and  in  a  man- 
ner that  is  comparatively  simple  for  the  operating  force. 

It  is  all-important  that  the  factors  used  in  any  classification  shall 
rest  on  a  defensible  foundation,  and  serious  consideration  has  been 
given  to  the  work  along  this  line,  particularly  to  the  questions  of 
height  of  pile  and  floor  load,  and  laws  relative  to  use  and  occupancy 
when  once  these  two  points  are  fixed.  Certainly  no  classification 
could  be  of  value  that  did  not  comply  with  the  law  and  the  insurance 
regulations. 

The  basis  of  this  classification  for  storage  is  the  greatest  com- 
modity quantity  that  can  be  practically  stored  in  bulk  on  120  square 
feet  of  floor  space  not  exceeding  250  pounds  per  square  foot  or  8Y3 
feet  high. 

Less  than  Full  Lot  Unit  Quantity. — The  demand  for  serv- 
ice of  various  kinds  makes  it  necessary  to  provide  a  segregation  of  the 
quantity  adopted  for  the  base  classification,  and  here  we  are  con- 
fronted with  the  complicating  factors  of  assortment,  decreased  piling 
height  due  to  instability  of  pile  in  small  unit,  excessive  honeycomb, 
excessive  delivery  costs,  etc. 

It  is  no  longer  a  theory  but  a  fact,  that  a  serious  matter  con- 
fronts the  industry  with  the  changed  character  of  the  business  offered 
warehousemen  in  recent  years,  enhancing  costs  very  materially  and 
adding  much  to  the  warehouseman's  responsibility. 

Statistical  data  are  fundamental  and  although  cost  accountants 
have  recently  revealed  many  facts  on  costs  of  specific  services  pertain- 
ing to  storing  and  handling  goods,  particularly  in  small  units,  yet 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  combine  the  known  facts  in  a  formula 
that  will  in  all  cases  do  justice  to  storer  and  warehouseman  alike 
without  an  excessive  amount  of  special  charges,  complicating  the 
rating  system  and  not  desired  by  either  party. 

In  view  of  this  present  and  ever-increasing  demand  for  service 
it  is  manifestly  unjust  to  apply  to  all  receipts  the  average  cost  of 
storing  or  handling  a  commodity  under  all  conditions,  and  the  result 
of  such  practice  must  be  obvious  to  all  thinking  warehousemen. 

The  situation  demands  that  warehousemen  meet  this  condition  in 
some  practical  way,  and  after  due  consideration  of  all  information 
available  it  seems  best  to  assume  that  the  storer  who  elects  to  store  his 
goods  in  small  units  is  dealing  with  the  warehouseman  in  a  retail  way 
and  therefore  should  bear  the  burden,  an  assumption  that  may  or 
may  not  be  true  in  specific  cases  but  nevertheless  is  representative  of 
the  trend  of  costs  and  a  recognized  principle  in  commercial  activity. 

The  above  conclusion  is  reached  on  the  further  assumption  that 


328  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

each  car  of  goods  received  shall  be  computed  on  its  own  basis  and  as 
such  the  sorting  would  be  included  in  the  rate.  If,  however,  the 
shipment  consists  of  more  than  one  car,  each  containing  assortment 
but  to  be  accumulated  for  storage  in  full  lot  unit  quantities  or  more, 
the  warehouseman  would  be  entitled  to  extra  reimbursement  for  the 
extra  service  involved. 

Individual  Package  Delivery. — Although  individual  package 
delivery  is  "less  than  lot  unit"  carried  to  its  extreme  and  differs 
therefrom  only  in  degree,  it  requires  somewhat  different  consideration. 
In  L.  L.  U.  a  percentage  is  used  that  is  assumed  to  represent  the 
average  waste  of  space  due  to  aisles  and  honeycomb  in  the  various 
sizes  of  lot.  A  lot  of  less  than  five  packages  is  rare  and  the  percent- 
ages are  estimated  on  a  much  higher  average ;  in  I.  P.  D.  the  lot  is  one 
package.  Thirty-three  and  one-third  per  cent  aisles  are  generally 
sufficient,  but  in  the  case  of  small  packages  a  wider  aisle  may  be 
required  to  admit  a  man  or  a  truck.  This  also  occurs  in  the  case  of 
irregular-sized  packages,  such  as  case  goods  or  dry  goods,  the  aisle 
having  to  admit  the  maximum  package. 

Height  of  pile  is  also  limited  to  a  point  lower  than  that  indicated 
in  L.  L.  U.  owing  to  the  increased  instability  of  pile  and  excessive 
cost  of  delivery  of  packages  in  the  lower  tiers.  Experience  demon- 
strates that  four  packages  high  is  an  extreme  limit ;  that  two  high  is 
the  height  most  often  indicated ;  and  that  one  high  is  much  more 
frequent  than  anything  over  two. 

Small  Packages. — Theoretically,  small  packages  of  a  commod- 
ity can  be  stored  at  proportionate  rates  per  hundredweight  to  that  of 
the  larger  packages  of  the  same  commodity,  but  this  does  not  appear 
to  work  out  under  practical  operating  conditions.  In  many  cases 
the  instability  of  the  pile  when  partial  delivery  of  the  lot  takes  place 
necessitates  the  removal  of  goods  in  the  upper  tiers  to  a  lower  level ; 
fragility  of  package  oftentimes  will  not  permit  of  rehandling  broken 
lots  for  the  purpose  of  making  space  for  other  goods,  and  the  ex- 
cessive cost  of  rehandling  all  tend  towards  excessive  honeycomb  of 
the  house.  The  absence  of  statistics  to  indicate  the  extent  of  this  loss 
makes  it  necessary  to  accept  some  arbitrary  figure  in  the  computa- 
tion of  the  rate.  Furthermore,  it  seems  advisable  to  fix  a  minimum 
charge  on  small  packages  regardless  of  weight.  This  increased  charge 
may  be  avoided  if  the  manufacturer  will  pack  or  strap  small  units 
into  one  larger  unit  for  which  he  will  receive  a  lower  rating  per  100 
pounds  than  he  would  otherwise  obtain. 

(See  full  text  of  "Report  of  the  Central  Bureau  Committee — 
American  Warehousemen's  Association,  1920.") 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  329 

AVERAGE   OCCUPANCY   OF   WAREHOUSE   SPACE 

The  total  available  space  as  defined  on  page  323  is  the  basis  of  all 
computations  and  estimates.  A  portion  of  this  space  is  necessarily 
permanently  unoccupied,  and  this  has  been  divided  into  two  classes 
— aisle  space  and  working  space.  Another  portion  is  sometimes  oc- 
cupied and  sometimes  unoccupied,  and  this  has  also  been  divided 
into  two  classes — waste  space  and  idle  space.  All  of  these  classes 
will  vary  in  different  warehouses  and  with  different  lines  of  business 
and  the  last  one  will  vary  as  between  different  seasons  or  years. 

Aisle  Space. — The  permanent  aisles  required  for  the  economi- 
cal handling  of  goods  from  door  to  pile  and  from  pile  to  door,  or 
required  by  the  fire  regulations  to  furnish  access  for  firemen,  are  esti- 
mated at  from  20  per  cent  to  25  per  cent.  No  warehouses  were  found 
where  the  actual  figure  was  less  than  this  estimate,  and  while  there 
are  many  where  it  must  be  more,  it  was  not  thought  proper  to  take 
into  consideration  a  manifestly  badly  designed  or  poorly  laid-out 
warehouse  or  an  unsuitable  building  used  for  warehouse  purposes. 

Working  Space. — It  is  well  known  to  all  warehousemen  that 
some  vacant  space  is  necessary  at  all  times,  or  practically  all  times, 
to  provide  for  regular  customers ;  to  furnish  room  for  weighing, 
inspection,  or  examination,  sampling,  rehandling  of  any  kind,  and 
to  take  care  of  unexpected  demands  for  space.  No  warehouse  can 
hold  its  customers  long  unless  it  constantly,  or  at  least  generally, 
has  on  hand  some  stock  of  the  only  line  it  has  to  sell,  namely,  space 
for  the  storage  of  merchandise.  How  long  can  a  merchant  hold  his 
trade  without  having  any  stock  to  fill  an  order?  The  necessary 
average  of  working  space  has  been  estimated  at  5  per  cent  to  12 
per  cent,  and  this  minimum  is  certainly  conservative. 

Waste  Space. — The  space  left  vacant  by  partial  delivery  of 
block  or  bulk  lots  and  the  space  left  vacant  by  failure  of  lots  as 
received  to  fill  entirely  any  space  obtainable  at  the  moment.  This 
waste  space  is  not  to  be  readily  estimated,  but  it  is  there  just  the  same. 
Even  unit  lots  of  merchandise  cannot  be  packed  in  a  warehouse  like 
toy  building  blocks  in  their  box.  Waste  space  is  estimated  at  from 
o  to  8  per  cent,  and  again  the  minimum  is  manifestly  low. 

Idle  Space. — It  is  well  known  that  there  come  in  our  business 
dull  years  or  seasons  that  show  a  surplus  of  vacant  space  and  deficit 
of  earnings  that  must  be  taken  care  of  in  good  years.  In  1913  and 
1914,  Massachusetts  warehouses  averaged  less  than  40  per  cent 
capacity  or  30  per  cent  available  floor  space  occupied.  Next  to  aisle 
space  this  is  the  largest  item  of  unoccupied  space  and  it  is  one  that 


330  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

cannot  be  avoided.  The  difference  between  the  maximum  and  the 
minimum  demand  for  storage  is  very  great,  and  if  warehouses  as  a 
whole  are  to  be  reasonably  prepared  to  take  care  of  the  peak  load 
they  must  necessarily  average  a  considerable  proportion  of  idle 
space.  What  that  proportion  is  cannot  be  accurately  determined,  but 
an  estimate  between  limits  can  be  made.  Those  limits  have  been  set 
at  from  o  to  40  per  cent.  That  maximum  has  undoubtedly  been 
exceeded,  but  exceptional  cases  should  not  be  considered  in  deter- 
mining averages,  and  the  maximum  here  used  represents  a  not  uncom- 
mon occurrence. 

The  result  of  these  various  estimates  is: 

Aisle  space  (including  space  oc- 
cupied by  columns) 20  to  25  per  cent 

Working  space 5  to  12  per  cent 

Space  permanently  unoccupied  25  to  37  per  cent 

Waste    space    o  to     8  per  cent 

Idle   space    o  to  40  per  cent 


Space  unoccupied  at  times o  to  48  per  cent 

25  to  85  per  cent 

In  other  words,  the  maximum  and  minimum  percentages  of  occu- 
pancy are  respectively  75  per  cent  and  15  per  cent,  the  extremes  of 
vacancy  being  25  per  cent  and  85  per  cent.  The  mathematical  aver- 
age is  45  per  cent,  but  it  has  seemed  to  the  Committee  that  good 
business  management  in  a  Standard  Warehouse  should  produce  a 
little  better  than  that,  and  so  the  50  per  cent  figure  has  been 
used. 

In  considering  this  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  50  per  cent  of 
available  floor  space  occupied  does  not  mean  that  the  warehouse  is 
only  half  full.  It  means  that  the  warehouse  is  three-fifths  to  three- 
quarters  full.  From  25  per  cent  to  40  per  cent  of  "available  space," 
although  it  is  "available"  for  business  purposes,  is  not  "occupiable" 
for  goods  on  storage  as  it  is  necessary  for  aisles  and  working  space. 
When  a  warehouseman  has  filled  his  occupiable  space — from  60  per 
cent  to  75  per  cent  of  his  available  space — he  is  done,  he  is  out  of 
business  for  the  time  being,  he  can  take  no  more  business  until  after 
he  has  delivered  something.  That  means  that  he  must  discommode 
old  customers  and  decline  new  ones;  his  working  force  is  idle  though 
his  pay  roll  is  still  active  and  his  handling  account  is  developing  a 
balance  on  the  wrong  side. 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  331 

The  Committee  believe  that  these  estimates  are  conservative  and 
that  the  conclusion  is  defensible. 


HANDLING 

The  warehouse  business  has  in  many  cases  been  very  unprofitable 
in  the  past  as  a  result  of  ignorant  competition  due  to  an  absolute  lack 
of  knowledge  of  the  cost  of  handling  merchandise. 

One  of  the  most  serious  mistakes  has  been  losing  sight  of  the  fact 
that  there  is  a  heavy  overhead  expense  attached  to  handling  opera- 
tions. This  oversight  has  practically  made  bankrupts  of  many 
warehouse  concerns  whose  executives  were  experts  on  general  prob- 
lems and  the  handling  of  labor. 

Unusual  conditions,  due  largely  to  the  war,  have  created  an 
extraordinary  demand  for  storage  facilities.  This  has  resulted  in 
some  warehouse  concerns  enjoying  an  era  of  prosperity  who  were  in 
a  rather  precarious  financial  condition  before  the  war.  The  demand 
for  storage  facilities  caused  many  new  warehouse  concerns  to  enter 
the  field.  The  inevitable  reaction  with  its  attendant  period  of  com- 
petition requires  careful  consideration  and  demonstrates  the  need  of 
every  warehouseman  in  the  country  for  a  sound  fundamental  basis  for 
complete  knowledge  of  his  own  business. 

The  unscientific  method  commonly  used  for  estimating  handling 
costs  was  to  determine  the  actual  cost  of  the  in  movement  of  the 
goods;  an  arbitrary  amount  for  delivery  (varying  all  the  way  from 
50  per  cent  to  150  per  cent  of  the  in  cost)  was  added  as  an  estimate 
of  the  probable  delivery  cost  and  the  price  was  then  quoted  slightly, 
if  any,  higher  than  the  resultant  figure.  Nothing  was  added  for 
overhead  expense,  nor  was  consideration  given  to  the  various  addi- 
tional services  furnished. 

This  method,  when  wages  of  warehouse  labor  averaged  20  cents 
per  hour,  made  the  handling  rate  appear  to  be  about  the  same  as  the 
prevailing  rate  for  storage.  From  this  grew  up  the  rough  and  ready 
idea  of  charging  the  same  amount  for  handling  as  for  one  month's 
storage.  Thus,  the  first  month's  charge  would  include  the  receiving 
and  delivering  of  the  merchandise  and  would  be  twice  the  charge  for 
each  succeeding  month. 

The  actual  result  of  following  this  method  has  been  that  some 
commodities  were  carrying  the  burden  for  others,  or  in  other  words 
some  commodities  were  paying  an  excessive  rate  of  profit,  while 
others  were  handled  at  an  actual  loss ;  obviously  the  warehouseman 
would  be  far  better  off  were  he  to  discontinue  accepting  for  storage 


332  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

the  latter  class  of  merchandise,  if  increased  rates  could  not  be  ob- 
tained. By  the  same  reasoning,  when  he  determines  the  line  of 
merchandise  which  pays  the  excessive  profit,  by  catering  to  that 
line,  possibly  somewhat  reducing  his  rates,  he  may  apparently  in- 
crease his  final  net  income. 

Studies  by  experts  have  so  far  shown  that  throughout  the  country 
the  average  overhead  expense  is  at  least  125  per  cent  of  the  direct 
pay-roll  cost  of  laborers  and  checkers  actually  engaged  in  performing 
any  particular  handling  operations. 

The  old  method  was  in  cost,  plus  estimated  out  cost,  plus  profit, 
or  arbitrarily  arrived  at  by  making  the  rate  the  same  as  the  storage 
rate.  The  correct  method  is  in  and  out  cost  plus  overhead,  plus 
profit.  Ten  to  twenty-five  per  cent  is  a  very  conservative  amount  to 
add  to  the  combined  direct  labor  and  overhead  cost  of  handling,  for 
profit. 

Wages  have  advanced  to  several  times  those  paid  since  the  old 
method  of  charging  equal  rates  for  storage  and  handling  was  first 
used.  Taking  into  consideration  these  factors  of  increased  wages, 
overhead  expense  and  profit,  it  will  be  found  that  equitable  handling 
rates  may  often  be  three  or  four  times  the  rates  shown  in  tariffs 
even  now  in  use  in  some  sections  of  the  country,  while,  per  contra, 
handling  rates  for  some  commodities  may  be  less  than  the  rate  for 
storage. 

The  absorption  in  the  handling  charge  (usually  billed  with  the  first 
month's  storage)  of  the  cost  of  unloading  and  loading  cars,  transfers 
from  wharves  to  warehouses,  cartage,  weighing,  and  other  services 
has  been  a  growing  evil.  It  has  in  effect  given  indirect  rebates  to  cer- 
tain customers  and  substantially  added  to  the  losses  of  the  ware- 
houseman, or  reduced  his  profits.  It  has  been  proved  that  in  some 
instances  the  cost  of  handling  and  other  services  absorbed  have  made 
it  impossible  to  earn  one  cent  from  certain  lots  of  merchandise  until 
they  have  been  in  store  four  months  or  more,  actual  losses  being 
incurred  on  lots  removed  from  store  within  shorter  periods. 

The  simplest  handling  operation  is  the  receiving  of  goods  from 
the  tailboard  of  a  truck,  the  hoisting  and  piling  in  warehouse  and 
the  redelivery  to  the  tailboard  of  a  truck  (other  services  being  some- 
times required  and  sometimes  not)  ;  it  is  therefore  good  accounting 
practice  to  make  this  the  base  operation  charged  for  in  the  first  month 
and  make  extra  charges  for  extra  services.  Thus  car  loading  and  un- 
loading should  be  charged  for  separately,  as  well  as  cartage,  weigh- 
ing, or  any  other  service  required,  each  being  based  on  productive 
cost  plus  overhead,  plus  profit. 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  333 

In  these  days  of  advancing  wages,  cost  figures  at  the  time  goods 
are  received  may  be  based  on  a  wage  scale  far  lower  than  when  the 
goods  are  delivered.  The  present  method  of  billing  for  receiving  and 
delivering  allows  no  opportunity  of  taking  care  of  this  possible  source 
of  loss.  The  proper  method  of  handling  this  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject would  be  to  charge  for  the  handling  in  when  goods  are 
received  and  to  charge  handling  out  to  the  party  then  owning  the 
goods  when  delivery  is  made.  This  is  such  a  radical  charge  that 
it  is  not  deemed  advisable  to  make  such  a  recommendation  at  this 
time. 

It  is  very  essential  that  much  data  be  secured  in  all  parts  of  the 
country  as  to  the  productive  labor  cost  of  handling  all  kinds  of 
merchandise.  The  American  Warehousemen's  Association  has  es- 
tablished a  Central  Bureau  for  the  purpose  of  compiling  data  con- 
cerning handling  costs ;  this  information  is  being  secured  from  all 
sections  of  the  country  and  its  value  to  a  warehouseman  cannot  be 
overestimated. 

Productive  labor  as  used  in  this  report  is  understood  to  mean 
the  wage  cost  of  the  laborers  and  checkers  while  actually  em- 
ployed on  an  operation  for  which  the  warehouse  is  making  a 
charge, 

In  order  to  make  these  records  valuable  in  all  sections  of  the 
country,  they  should  be  computed  on  a  man-hour  basis.  By  the  use 
of  man-hours  real  comparison  may  be  made  and  results  may  be 
easily  translated  into  dollars  and  cents  by  applying  the  wage  per  hour 
prevailing  in  any  particular  locality. 

In  addition  to  the  establishment  of  the  Central  Bureau,  informa- 
tion bureaus  in  connection  with  local  associations  of  warehousemen 
with  paid  actuaries  are  being  established  throughout  the  country. 
Exchange  of  information  in  regard  to  man-hour  costs  between  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  can  thus  be  readily  accomplished  and  all 
sections  can  quote  reasonable  rates  even  on  commodities  with  which 
they  are  unfamiliar. 

An  example  showing  the  method  of  applying  this  system  of 
handling  charges  is  given  on  the  following  page. 

As  the  next  package  rate  step  above  14.4  is  15,  this  would  be  the 
handling  rate  to  apply,  assuming  the  example  to  be  a  fair  average 
productive  labor  cost. 

A  method  for  securing  productive  labor  costs  as  well  as  amount 
of  overhead  expense  is  shown  in  the  later  sections  on  Pay-Roll 
Division  and  Determination  of  Overhead. 


334 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

RECEIVING  AND  DELIVERING  1,037  BAGS  TAPIOCA 

AVERAGE  WEIGHT    152    LBS. 


Total 
Man-Hours 

Man-Hours 
Per  Package 

Receiving 

52.50 
57.00 

.05 
•054 

Delivering 
T   fhprlcpr    ^   mpn  QV?   hrs 

109.50 

.104 

Total 
Cost 

Cost  per 
Pkg.  in 
Cents 

Cost  per 
100  Lbs.  in 
Cents 

Labor   cost,    109.50   man-hours    at 

$60.23 
75-29 

5-8 
7-3 

3-8i 
4.80 

$135.52 
13-55 

$149.07 

13.1 
1.3 

14.4 

8.61 
.86 

947 

UNIFORM    COST   ACCOUNTING 

Uniform  systems  of  accounts  and  statistical  records  form  the 
bedrock  upon  which  any  rate  foundation  or  structure  must  be  built  if 
the  building  is  to  stand  the  tests  which  are  bound  to  be  applied  either 
by  customers  or  by  public  officials.  This  is  as  pertinent  to  ware- 
housing as  it  is  to  transportation  or  any  other  form  of  public  utility. 

In  calculating  rates,  statistical  data  must  be  available  from  many 
warehouses  in  order  that  averages  may  be  obtained  upon  which  to 
establish  standards.  Uniform  systems  of  keeping  the  accounts  and 
statistics  by  the  warehouses  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  justify  rates 
made  for  storage,  handling,  car  unloading  and  loading,  or  any  other 
service  rendered. 

A  suitable  system  of  uniform  accounting  will  necessitate : 
I.     Classification  of  earnings  or  receipts. 

Uniform  classification  with  separate  accounts  for  these  earnings 
from  all  important  sources : 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  335 

(a)  Storage. 

(b)  Handling.3 

(c)  Weighing  and  sampling. 

(d)  Miscellaneous  extra  services. 
(<?)  Loading  and  unloading  cars. 

(/)     All  other  miscellaneous  sources  of  revenue. 

II.  Classification  of  expenses. 

Uniform  classification  of  expense  of  operating,  with  separate 

accounts  subdivided  as  in  earnings. 
(0)     Storage. 
(b)     Handling     (corresponding    to    b,    c,    and    d,    under 

Earnings). 
(e)     Car  service. 

(/)     Expenses    connected    with    miscellaneous    sources    of 
revenue. 

III.  Determination  of  investment. 

(a)  Plant  (land,  buildings,  private  street). 

(b)  Equipment  (elevators,  trucks,  etc.). 

(c)  Trackage  facilities  (land,  car  tracks,  car  platforms). 

IV.  Determination   and   application  of  overhead   expenses. 

All  pay-roll  items  and  other  expenses  which  cannot  be 
applied  directly  to  Storage,  Handling,  Car  Service,  or 
any  other  particular  service,  must  be  analyzed  and  dis- 
tributed according  to  a  uniform  plan.  These  being  added 
to  the  direct  costs,  the  entire  or  true  cost  of  each  service 
will  be  found. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  EXPENSES  IN  DETAIL 

Expense  (A)  Storage. 
Rent,  or  in  lieu  of  rent. 

1.  Seven   per   cent   on   investment   including   buildings,    land 

occupied  by  buildings  and  interest,  taxes  and  insurance 
during  construction. 

2.  Depreciation — 2   per    cent  on   value   of   brick   or   concrete 

buildings  and  3  per  cent  on  frame  buildings. 

3.  Obsolescence. 

4.  Fire  insurance  on  buildings. 

5.  Taxes,   Federal,   State  and  Municipal,  applicable  to   real 

estate. 

3  Handling  is  here  understood  to  mean  the  in  and  out  handling  from 
sill  to  sill  of  the  warehouse,  customarily  charged  in  the  first  month. 


336  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

6.  Repairs  to  building. 

7.  Landlord's  risk,  amortization  and  profit  on  investment. 
Administration  and  operating  expenses,  taxes,  etc. 

1.  One-third  of  executives'  salaries,  salaries  of  departmental 

heads,   office  salaries,  general   office   and  miscellaneous 
expense. 

2.  Watching. 

3.  Advertising. 

4.  Interest  on  working  capital. 

5.  Taxes.     Applicable  to  storage. 

6.  Contingencies. 


Explanatory  Notes — Expense  (A) 

Investment. — If  the  plant  is  rented,  estimated  values  should  be 
used. 

Depreciation. — Depreciation  as  usually  allowed  by  the  Internal 
Revenue  Department  is  2  per  cent  on  brick  or  concrete  buildings  and 
3  per  cent  on  frame  buildings. 

Obsolescence. — Obsolescence  as  allowed  by  the  Internal  Revenue 
Department  should  be  given  due  consideration. 

Repairs. — This  item  comprises  only  ordinary  repairs  to  keep 
buildings  in  good  condition.  Extraordinary  repairs  increasing  the 
value  of  the  plant  should  go  to  capital  or  investment  accounts. 

General  Expenses. — An  analysis  of  a  number  of  warehouses 
shows  that  about  two-thirds  of  the  time  of  the  office  employees,  and 
therefore  the  management  also,  is  concerned  with  the  various  han- 
dling operations.  Storage  is  rental  and  can  be  carried  on  by  a  very 
small  force  if  a  contractor  or  some  other  party  attends  to  the  han- 
dling. Office  expenses,  such  as  telephones,  office  coal  and  light,  and 
sundry  expenses,  are  also  included  in  this  item. 

Watching. — Watching  is  for  the  protection  of  the  property  and 
reduces  the  fire  insurance  rate.  It,  therefore,  is  a  proper  storage 
expense. 

Advertising. — Advertising  for  storage  only  belongs  here.  The 
warehouseman's  principal  business  is  that  of  storage,  and  handling 
is  incidental  to  it ;  accordingly,  it  is  proper  to  consider  advertising  for 
storage  purely  a  storage  expense.  Advertising  for  laborers  is  a 
labor  expense. 

Interest  on  Working  Capital. — A  certain  amount  of  working 
capital  is  necessary  to  carry  bills  receivable. 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  337 

Expense  (B)  Handling;  (C)  Weighing  and  Sampling;   (D)   Mis- 
cellaneous Extra  Service. 

1.  Actual    warehouse    labor    employed    productively,    including 

warehouse  clerks,  checkers  and  weighers. 

2.  Nonproductive  labor,  including: 

Moving  merchandise. 
Holiday  time. 
Janitor  and  cleaning. 
Undistributed  labor. 

3.  Liability  insurance. 

4.  Seven   per   cent  on  the   investment   in   equipment,   including 

elevators,  whips,  trucks,  scales,  etc. 

5.  Taxes  applicable  to  handling  whether  assessed  on  value  of 

equipment,  amount  of  working  capital  or  on  income. 

6.  Ten  per  cent  depreciation  on  Item  4. 

7.  Repairs  to  equipment. 

8.  Power  and  light. 

9.  Claims. 

10.  Two-thirds  of  executives'   salaries,   salaries  of  departmental 

heads,  office  salaries,  general  office  and  miscellaneous  ex- 
pense.    (Less  amount  charged  to  car  service.) 

11.  Interest  on  working  capital. 

12.  Miscellaneous  supplies  and  expenses  connected  with  labor. 

NOTE  A. — Items  2  to  12,  inclusive,  divided  by  Item  l  will  pro- 
duce the  percentage  of  overhead  expense  for  handling. 

NOTE  B. — Item  10  includes:  Executive  salaries,  salaries  of  de- 
partmental heads,  office  salaries,  office  supplies,  telephone,  water, 
coal  for  office  heating,  contributions,  and  all  miscellaneous  small 
itern^s  of  expense  not  directly  chargeable  to  storage,  handling,  car 
service,  or  other  miscellaneous  services. 


Explanatory  Notes — Expenses  B,  C,  D 

Productive  and  Nonproductive  Labor. — The  method  of  finding 
these  amounts  by  divisions  of  the  pay  roll  is  discussed  in  the  section 
devoted  to  this  subject. 

Equipment  Investment. — The  investment  in  equipment  should 
be  determined  by  the  warehouseman  to  furnish  a  basis  for  these 
figures. 

Power  and  Light. — Furnishing  of  power  or  light  is  a  labor 
service,  varying  according  to  the  amount  of  merchandise  handled, 


338  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

storage  as  such  not  requiring  either.  They  are  therefore  handling 
expenses.  (Storage  should  be  kept  a  simple  space  rental  proposition.) 

Claims. — This  refers  to  breakage  and  loss  claims  due  to  negli- 
gence in  handling  merchandise.  There  are  some  claims  which  might 
be  considered  as  storage  liability,  such  as  damage  from  leaking 
roofs.  Each  claim  should  be  analyzed  and  placed  where  it  belongs. 

Portion  of  General  Expenses. — Where  the  labor  covers  more 
than  one  service,  it  is  defensible  to  distribute  the  overhead  expense 
proportionately  according  to  the  percentage  the  gross  billing  for  each 
service  bears  to  the  total  gross  billing  for  labor. 

Miscellaneous  Expense. — This  covers  items  of  general  expense, 
directly  chargeable  to  labor. 

Lubricants  for  equipment,  general  care  of  equipment  and  employ- 
ment departments  are  some  items  which  are  included. 

Expense  (E)  Car  Service. 

1.  Actual  labor  loading  and  unloading  cars. 

2.  Nonproductive  labor. 

3.  Liability  insurance. 

4.  Seven  per  cent  on  investment  in  land,  tracks  and  platforms. 

5.  Taxes  applicable  to  Car  Service. 

6.  Five  per  cent  depreciation  on  investment  in  tracks,  etc. 

7.  Repairs  to  tracks,  etc. 

8.  A  share  of  executives'  salaries,  salaries  of  departmental  heads, 

office  salaries  and  general  office  and  miscellaneous  expenses. 

9.  Interest  on  working  capital. 
10.     Contingencies. 

NOTE. — Item  8  should  be  determined  as  follows :  Find  the  per- 
centage relation  which  the  billings  for  loading  and  unloading  cars 
bear  to  the  total  billings,  exclusive  of  storage.  Credit  the  amount 
represented  by  this  percentage  to  Item  10,  Expense  (B)  Handling, 
(C)  Weighing  and  Sampling,  (D)  Miscellaneous  Extra  Services, 
and  charge  a  like  amount  to  Item  8  under  Expense  (E)  Car  Service. 

SYSTEM  ILLUSTRATED  BY  A  STANDARD  WAREHOUSE  CONSTRUCTED 

IN  1920 

Showing  Initial  Cost  of  Plant  with  Estimated  Capital,  Fixed 

Charges,    Operating    Expenses,    Operating    Revenues 

and  Net  Return 

This  example  has  been  prepared  after  exhaustive  study  of 
numerous  estimates  furnished  by  competent  authorities,  as  a  con- 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  339 

servative  illustration  of  the  rates  required  to  produce  a  reasonably 
adequate  return.  The  majority  of  warehouse  buildings  constructed 
during  1920  have  exceeded  the  estimated  costs  indicated  below. 

It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  this  illustration  covers  a  con- 
servative estimate  of  the  average  cost  of  this  type  of  warehouse  and 
that  the  conclusions  as  to  rates  reached  through  its  use  must  be 
revised  upward  or  downward  as  the  case  may  be,  through  considera- 
tion of  local  conditions,  depreciation,  land  values,  accessibility,  etc. 

SPECIFICATIONS 

Standard  reinforced  200'  X  100'  (outside  dimensions),  six  stories 
and  basement,  flat  slab  construction  with  brick  or  hollow  tile  panels. 
Three  12"  fire  walls  of  brick  or  hollow  tile  equally  dividing  build- 
ing into  four  sections,  and  two  concrete  enclosed  stairways.  Clear- 
ance between  floors  10'  except  15'  on  first  floor.  All  floors  having 
not  less  than  250  Ibs.  per  square  foot  rated  floor-load  capacity  served 
with  standard  dry  pipe  Sprinkler  system,  two  source  supply,  with 
tank  of  50,000  gals,  capacity.  Equipment  consisting  of  four  (4) 
8,OOO  pound  elevators,  four  (4)  double  whip-hoists,  electric  lights, 
intercommunicating  telephones  between  office  and  each  floor,  operat- 
ing office,  shipping  clerks'  office  and  room  for  laborers,  necessary 
plumbing,  heating  and  furniture  for  offices  and  laborers'  room. 

(No  figures  have  been  included  for  interior  tiering  machines  and 
wiring,  but  these  should  be  installed  in  any  warehouse  handling 
heavy  materials.) 

Facilities  for  handling  cars  consisting  of  two  (2)  railroad  tracks 
with  capacity  for  five  (5)  cars  each,  platform  10'  wide  on  track 
side  of  building. 

Area  outside  walls  200'  X  100'  X  7  =  140,000  square  feet 

Area  inside  walls       195'  X    98'  X  7  =  133*770 

Area  available  (taking  out  office, 
shipping  and  laborers'  rooms,  ele- 
vators and  stairways)  =  123,000  " 


ESTIMATED  COST 1920 

Land 

For   buildings 20,000  square  feet 

For    railroad     siding    and 

platform    7,000 

For   siding  connection.  .  .  .      1,000       " 

28,000  square  feet  at  $2  =  ${6,000 


340  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

(No  allowance  is  made  for  private  streets  which  in  many 

cases  are  necessary.) 
Building 

Construction,    engineering    and    supervision    including 

equipment  and  tank  140,000  square  feet  at  $3.75.  . .  .   $525,000 

Two  (2)  tracks  and  platform  200'  X  10' 8,000 

Equipment 

Elevators,  whips,  wiring,  heating,  plumbing,  telephones, 

partitions  and  furniture  for  offices,  shipping  room  and 

laborers'  room    50,000 

Organization  and  charter 2,000 

Interest  on  land  during  construction — 1  year  at  7  per 

cent   3>92O 

Taxes  and  insurance  during  construction 11,620 

Interest  on  building  cost  during  construction 10,000 

Working  capital    83,460 

Capital  Assets . $750,000 


(A)    STORAGE 

Estimated  Income 

One  hundred  twenty-three  thousand  square  feet  of  available  floor 
space  at  96  cents  per  square  foot  per  year  based  on  16  cents  per 
square  foot  per  month,  50  per  cent  of  space  occupied $118,080 

NOTE. — Main  aisles  and  columns  occupy  25  per  cent  of  total 
space  inside  of  walls  after  deducting  elevators,  stairways,  office, 
shipping  and  laborers'  room.  The  above  basis  of  50  per  cent  there- 
fore presupposes  an  average  storage  occupancy  throughout  the  year 
of  66  2/3  per  cent  of  actual  occupiable  storage  space. 

Estimated  Expenses 

Rent  (or  in  lieu  of  rent) 
l.     Interest  on  investment: 

Building   $525,000 

Land,  portion  occupied 

by   building    only.  .     40,000 
Organization    2,000 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  341 

Interest,  taxes  and  in- 
surance during  con- 
struction    25,540 


$592,540  at  7  per  cent  $41,478 

2.  Depreciation,  building 

above   foundation    .  . .    500,000  at  2  per  cent  10,OOO 

3.  Obsolescence    525,000  at  l  per  cent  5>25O 

4.  Fire     insurance     90     per 

cent  of  value  of  build- 
ing above  foundation.   450,000  at  */£  of  l  per  cent  562 

5.  Taxes,  Federal,  State  and 

Municipal 16,000 

6.  Repairs  to  buildings ....    500,000  at  l  per  cent  5,000 

7.  Landlord's  risk,  amortiza- 

tion and  profit  on  in- 
vestment      592>54°  at  2^2  per  cent  14,814 


Total  Rent  (or  in  lieu  of  rent) $93,104 


ESTIMATED  ADMINISTRATION   AND  OPERATING   EXPENSES,   TAXES,   ETC. 

1.  One-third  of  executives'  salaries,  salaries  of  depart- 

mental heads,  office   salaries,   general   office   and 

miscellaneous  expense   $10,OOO 

2.  Watchmen  and  watching  supervision 2,500 

3.  Advertising    3,000 

4.  Interest  on  working  capital — $50,000  at  7  per  cent.  3>5OO 

5.  Taxes    800 

6.  Contingencies   2,676 


Total  administration  and  operating  expenses, 

taxes,  etc $22,476 

Total  storage  expenses 1 15,580 

Net  income  from  storage 2,500 


342 


WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Analysis 


Average 
Square  Feet 
Floor   Space 

Occupied 
Storage 

income   $1 18,080  divided  by 
Storage 

expenses  115,580      " 
Profit  2,500      " 

Investment 

Working  capital 

2,500  divided  by  50,000  =  5  per  cent  profit 


61,500 

61,500 
61,500 


Dollars 
per  Sq.  Ft. 
per  Year 


1.92 

1.88 

.04 


$50,000 
on  investment. 


Cents 
per  Sq.  Ft. 
per  Month 


16.00 

15.67 
•33 


Attention  is  directed  to  the  fact  that  the  profit  here  indicated 
covers  Storage  only,  profit  arising  from  ownership  of  the  building 
being  provided  for  under  Rent.  The  proprietor's  salary  is  included 
in  executives'  salaries. 

Expense  Items  not  Included  in  Estimate 

Bailee's  responsibility  and  risk. 
Loss  and  damage  on  goods. 
Bad  debts. 
Maintenance  of  private  highways. 

Income  Items  not  Included  in  Estimate 
Short  periods  of  storage. 


(B)   HANDLING,    (c)    WEIGHING  AND  SAMPLING,   (D)    MISCELLANEOUS 

EXTRA  SERVICE 

Estimated  Income 

Receiving  and  delivering  billed $80,000 

Weighing  and  sampling  billed 7,000 

Extra  service  billed 9,000 


Total  Income    $96,000 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  343 

Estimated  Expenses 

1.  Actual  productive   labor   employed   in   receiving 

and  delivering,  weighing  and  sampling,  and 

extra  service   $38,000 

2.  Nonproductive  labor 13,000 

3.  Liability  insurance 1,500 

4.  Interest  on  investment  in  equipment — $50,000  at 

7  per  cent 3,500 

5.  Taxes    1,600 

6.  Ten  per  cent  depreciation  on  Item  4 5,OOO 

7.  Repairs  on  Item  4  at  5  per  cent 2,500 

8.  Power  and  light 3,000 

9.  Claims     500 

10.     Two-thirds  of  salaries,  etc $20,000 

Less  amount  charged  to  Car  Service.  .  .         5455  H»545 


11.  Interest  on  working  capital — $26,000   at  7   per 

cent     1,820 

12.  Miscellaneous  expense    4,000 

Total  Expense   $88,965 

Profit   7,035 

Investment 

Equipment $50,000 

Working  capital   26,000 

$76,000 

7,035  divided  by  76,000  =  9.26  per  cent  profit  on 
investment. 

Total  expense $88,965 

Productive  labor 38,000 

Handling  overhead  expense $50,965 

Per    cent    overhead    expense    50,965    divided    by 

38,000  =  134  per  cent. 

(E)    CAR    SERVICE 

Estimated  Income 

Unloading  cars $21,OOO 

Loading  cars , 15,000 

$36,000 


344  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

Estimated  Expenses 

1.  Actual  labor  loading  and  unloading  cars $14,000 

2.  Nonproductive  labor 6,800 

3.  Liability  insurance    700 

4.  Interest  on  investment  at  7  per  cent: 

Land    $16,000 

Tracks  and  platform 8,000 


$24,000  l,68o 

5.  Taxes    750 

6.  Depreciation  on  tracks,  etc 400 

7.  Repairs  on  tracks,  etc 750 

8.  Share  of  executives'  salaries,  office  salaries,  etc.  .  5455 

9.  Interest  on  working  capital — $7,460  at  7  per  cent  522 
10.  Contingencies    19678 


$32,735 

Profit   3*265 

Investment 

Tracks,  etc $24,000 

Working  capital   7,460 


$31,460 

3,265  divided  by  31,460=  10.38  per  cent  profit 
on  investment. 

Total  car  service  expense $32>735 

Productive  labor 14,000 


Car  service  overhead  expense $18,735 

Per    cent    overhead    expenses    18,735    divided    by 
14,000  =  134  per  cent. 

PAY-ROLL  DIVISION 

In  order  that  the  warehouseman  may  determine  his  costs  accord- 
ing to  the  method  proposed,  it  becomes  necessary  to  distribute  the 
pay  roll.  The  foundation  of  this  is  the  use  of  daily  time  cards,  either 
in  the  hands  of  the  individual  laborers  or  gang  foremen,  giving  the 
time  of  the  man  or  men,  information  as  to  the  lot  of  goods  handled 
and  the  different  services  performed.  To  be  of  real  value  this  must 
be  carefully,  carried  on  with  competent  supervision  and  made  to 


WAREHOUSING  AND  STORAGE  345 

balance  with  the  pay  roll.  A  portion  of  the  results  will  be  produc- 
tive labor  costs  and  the  balance  nonproductive  items,  such  as  idle 
time,  cleaning,  moving  merchandise  to  make  room,  etc. 


DETERMINATION   OF  OVERHEAD 

Next  must  be  ascertained  the  overhead  expense  which  applies  to 
handling  and  other  services.  This  is  done  by  adding  to  the  non- 
productive labor,  the  liability  insurance,  interest,  depreciation,  taxes, 
repairs  to  equipment  and  other  items  as  shown  in  the  classification 
of  Expense  B,  C,  D  and  E. 

COST  DEPARTMENT 

We  recommend  that  each  warehouseman,  if  he  has  not  already 
done  so,  organize  a  Cost  Department,  headed  by  a  man  who  com- 
bines good  accounting  ability  with  a  practical  warehouse  experience, 
furnishing  him  with  as  much  assistance  as  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
work  up  to  date  at  all  times. 

The  American  Warehousemen's  Association  has  established  a 
Central  Bureau,  referred  to  elsewhere  in  this  work,  which  is  pre- 
pared to  furnish  warehousemen  specimen  forms  and  information 
concerning  methods  of  keeping  cost  figures.  The  Primer  furnished 
by  the  American  Warehousemen's  Association  outlines  a  simple 
method  of  cost  finding. 


AN  EQUITABLE  PROFIT  IN  EACH  DEPARTMENT 

Each  department  of  the  warehouseman's  plant  should  show  a 
profit  at  the  end  of  the  year.  No  service  should  be  rendered  without 
profit.  All  profits  should  be  reasonable. 

Thus  the  Standard  Warehouse  Example  shows  profit  after 
making  due  allowance  for  profit  on  the  building,  interest  on  the 
investment,  and  after  salary  to  the  proprietor,  as  follows : 

Storage     $2,500 

Handling : 

Weighing,  sampling  and  miscellaneous  services  7*035 

Car  Service   3*265 

Total    $12,800 

No  department  should  perform  a  service  free  or  below  cost  to 


346  WHARF  MANAGEMENT 

attract  storage  business,  for  indirect  rebate  is  thereby  given  which 
will  injure  the  business  far  more  than  the  few  dollars  received  for 
the  storage  gained. 

This  ideal  condition,  it  is  safe  to  say,  has  not  heretofore  existed 
in  the  warehouse  industry. 

CONCLUSION 

The  foregoing  system  of  cost  accounting  and  basis  for  tariffs,  if 
carried  out  intelligently,  will  give  the  warehouseman  the  following 
knowledge : 

Income,  cost  and  profit  of  maintaining  and  operating  each  unit  of 
warehouse  space. 

Income,  cost  and  profit  of  handling  each  lot  of  merchandise  from 
sill  to  sill. 

Income,  cost  and  profit  of  loading  and  unloading  cars. 

Income,  cost  and  profit  of  weighing,  sampling  and  all  other 
services  for  which  separate  charges  are  made  to  the  customer. 

These  fundamental  facts  will  be  of  untold  assistance  in  quoting 
and  defending  prices  and  setting  a  new  and  higher  standard  for  the 
entire  industry.  A  warehouseman  will  then  have  no  hesitation  in 
quoting  rates  to  his  customers  because  he  will  have  that  secure 
feeling  that  his  rates  are  based  upon  proved  costs  with  a  legitimate 
profit  added.  These  will  also  permit  the  warehouseman  to  exercise 
intelligent  discrimination  in  the  taking  of  merchandise  to  be  stored 
by  him. 

Then,  and  only  then,  will  the  warehouse  industry  be  enabled  to 
ride  out  the  squalls  and  serious  storms  which  are  bound  to  occur 
from  time  to  time  in  the  business  world. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

T.  E.  WITTERS,  Chairman. 

In  closing  the  authors  wish  to  express  the  hope  that  this  imper- 
fect pioneer  effort  will  stimulate  others  to  study  the  best  methods  of 
water-front  operation  and  to  give  the  benefit  of  their  experience  to 
the  public  in  printed  form. 


INDEX 


Accounting,  steamship,  74. 

warehouse,  334. 

See  also  Operating  costs. 
A-frame  derrick,   148. 
"Airplane"  sling,  138. 

Baggage  master,  duties,  47. 
Banana  unloader,  168. 
Barrels,   stowing  method,    182. 

transfer  method,  139. 
Belt  conveyors  in  cargo  transfer, 

1 68,   170. 

Bridge  crane,   160. 
Broken  stowage,  definition,  180. 
effect  on  average  stowage  factor, 

197. 
Bulk  cargo,  definition  and  methods 

of  handling,  38. 
stowing  methods,   178. 
free-flowing,    transfer    methods, 

173. 
Bunkering,  definition,   n. 

mechanical  appliances  used,  174. 
Burton-and-fall    system    in    cargo 

transfer,  112. 

Cant  hooks,  138. 

Car\  loading,  instructions  and  dia- 
grams, 289. 
Cargo,  classification,  37. 

damaged,  record,  80. 

danger  of  shifting,  219. 

selection  by  stowage  factors,  191. 
Cargo  list,  94. 
Cargo  mast,  117. 
Cargo-sheet  clerk,  duties,  49. 
Cargo  tonnage,  definition,  31. 
Cargo  transfer,  by  crane,  146. 

methods,  101. 

signaling,  132. 

through  hatches,  109. 

through  side  ports,  106. 

time  studies,  233. 
Cargo  winches,  120. 


Cartage    congestion     New    York 

piers,  282. 

Center  of  gravity,  position  in  rela- 
tion to  safety  of  vessel,  215. 
Chain  sling,  143. 
Classification  societies,  influence  in 

promoting  safety,  205. 
Clearing  the  wharves,  230. 
Coaling.     See  Bunkering. 
Coffee  sorting  on  wharves  at  New 

Orleans,  253. 

Colliers,  characteristics,  43. 
Congestion,  drays,  New  York  piers, 

282. 

wharves,  Havana,  263. 
wharves,  New  Orleans,  253. 
wharves,  Philadelphia,  272. 
Containers,  list  of  important  types, 

145. 

Conveyors,  168,  170. 
Cost  accounting.     See  Accounting. 
Costs.    See  Accounting;  Operating 

Costs. 

Cotton,  stowage  factor,  196. 
Crane  versus  ship's  tackle  in  cargo 

transfer,  165. 
Cranes,  types,  146. 

Damaged  cargo,  record  keeping,  80. 

report,  82. 
Dangerous     goods,     classification, 

221. 

definition  and  handling,  41. 
laws  and  regulations  for  trans- 
portation, 208. 

Dead-weight  cargo,  definition,  188. 
Dead-weight     tonnage,     definition, 

3i. 

Deck  loads,  200. 
Delivery,  store-door  system,  285. 
transit  shed  to  warehouse,  296. 
wharf  to  dray,  282. 
wharf  to  railway  car,  287. 
Delivery  clerk,  duties,  53. 


347 


348 


INDEX 


Delivery  department,  53. 

Delivery  notice  to  send  goods  to 
wharf,  92. 

Delivery  order  to  release  merchan- 
dise, 9°« 

Depreciation,  charges  in  ship  opera- 
tion, 3. 
charges  in  warehouse  accounting, 

335- 

Derricks,  types,  146. 
Detective  force  on  wharves,  54. 
Directors  of  steamship  companies, 

responsibilities,  i. 
Discharging  cargo,  definition,  II. 
Discharging  receipt  book,  79. 
Displacement,  definition,  31. 
Dock,  definition,  36. 
Dock  receipt,  92. 
Dock  winches,  electric,  127. 
Dockage,  definition,  n,  13. 
Drafts,   assembling  and  appliances 
used  in  transfer,  136. 

starting  and  stopping,  132. 
Drum  end,  operation,  115. 
Dunnage,  definition,  n. 

use  in  stowage,  180. 

Economies,  example  of  saving  in 
port  expenses,  9. 

Electric  elevators  in  warehouses, 
297. 

Electric  trucks,  use  in  cargo  trans- 
fer, 232. 

Electric  winches,  126. 

Elevating,  definition,  12. 

Elevators  in  warehouses,  297. 

Extension  clerk,  duties,  50. 

Free-flowing  bulk  freight,  transfer, 

.173. 
Freight  handling,  comparative  costs 

by  hand  truck  and  by  tractor 

and  trailer,  250. 
Freight  manifest,  ship's,  97. 
Full  cargo,  definition,  187. 

Gang  work  by  longshoremen,  59. 

Gangs,  division  of  work  in  stowing, 
181. 

Gantry  cranes,  152. 

General  cargo,  definition  and  meth- 
ods of  handling,  40. 

Grain,  regulations  for  stowage, 
207. 


Gross  tonnage,  definition,  31. 
Guy  derrick,  149. 

Hammerhead  crane,  151. 

Hand  trucks,  use  in  cargo  transfer, 
106,  231. 

Harbor  dues,  n. 

Hatch  vessels,  42,  43. 

Havana,  wharf  congestion  and  rec- 
ommendations of  Joint  Cuban- 
American  Commission,  263. 

Heavy-duty  cranes,  160. 

Inbound  freight  accounting,  77. 

See  also  Accounting. 
Insurance    underwriters,    influence 

in   promoting   safety,   204. 
Interest,  charges  in  ship  operation, 
3- 

Joint  Cuban-American  Commis- 
sion, recommendations  for  re- 
lief of  wharf  congestion  at 
Havana,  263. 

Laws  governing  stowage,  201. 

Left-hand  winches,  122. 

Lien  on  goods  for  freight  charges, 

89. 

Lighter  clerk,  49. 
Lighterage,  definition,  12. 
Lighters,    service    in    loading    and 

unloading,  34. 
"List"  of  vessel,  217. 
Live  stock,   regulations  for  trans- 
portation, 207. 
Loading,  automobiles,  144. 

bags  of  merchandise,  139. 

barrels  and  hogsheads,  139,  182. 

beef,  141. 

dried  apples,  142. 

eggs,  142. 

ingots  and  billets,  142. 

iron  safe,  analysis  of  operations, 
140. 

locomotives,  144. 

steel  rails,  143. 
Locomotive  crane,  149. 
Locomotives,  stowing  of  assembled, 

199- 
Longshoremen,  classification,  57. 

decrease  in  efficiency,  52. 

definition,  55. 

division  for  gang  work,  59. 


INDEX 


349 


Longshoremen,  methods  of  hiring, 

58. 

National    Adjustment    Commis- 
sion award,  68. 
union  membership,  63. 
wage  scales,  64,  70. 
working  conditions,  67. 
Loose-pulley  fall  in  unloading  lake 
vessels,   107. 

Manifests,  97. 

Mechanical  aids  in  stowing,  179. 
Mechanical  conveyors,  108. 
Measurement  of  packages,  record, 

94- 

Measurement  ton,  definition,  29. 
Moisture,  danger  to  cargo,  223. 

National  Adjustment  Commission, 
award  of  wages  to  longshore- 
men, 68. 

Net  sling,  138. 

New  Orleans,  wharf  congestion 
and  recommendations  for  re- 
lief, 253. 

Operating  costs  of  vessel,  daily 
averages  for  four  vessels,  3. 

items  in  account,  4. 
Outbound  freight  accounting,  91. 

See  also  Accounting. 
Outward  foreign  manifest,  97. 
"Over-landed"  cargo,  83. 

Package  freight,  stowing  methods, 
179. 

Packing,  effect  on  stowage  and 
freight  rates,  197. 

"Paper  work"  in  steamship  opera- 
tion, 74. 

Philadelphia,  study  of  wharf  con- 
ditions, 272. 

Pier,  definition,  36. 

Pier  rent,  definition,  14. 

Pier  superintendent,  duties,  45. 

Pilfering,  precautions  against,  226. 

Pilotage,  definition,  n. 

Planning  the  stowage,  176. 

Platform  sling,  138. 

Port  expenses  of  vessel,   amounts 
by  items,  port  of  New  York,  6. 
effect  of  wharf  design,  27. 
methods  of  reducing,  9,  24. 

Port  warden's  fees,  u. 


Precious     cargo,     definition     and 

handling,  41. 
Profits    in    ship   operation,    factors 

affecting,  I. 

Quay,  definition,  36. 


Railroads,  discrimination  in  wharf- 
age and  dockage  charges,  15. 

Receiving  clerk,  duties,  48. 

Refrigerator  ships,  44. 

Removal  of  merchandise,  notice  to 
consignee,  85. 

Rigging  for  transfer  by  winches, 
1 20. 

Right-hand  winches,  122. 

Rope  sling,  136. 

Seaworthiness  of  vessels,  laws  de- 
fining, 202. 

Shifting  of  cargo,  219. 

Ship  operation,.  See  Operating 
costs. 

Ship's  tackle  versus  crane  in  cargo 
transfer,  164. 

Shop  crane,  158. 

"Short-landed"  cargo,  83. 

Side  ports,  42,   106. 

Signaling  in  cargo  transfer,  132. 

Single  boom  and  skid  in  cargo 
transfer,  ill. 

Slings,  136. 

Specialized  equipment  in  cargo 
transfer,  166. 

Stevedore,  qualifications  and  duties, 

5i. 

Stevedoring,  analysis  of  cost,  23. 
cost  in  relation  to  other  charges, 

6,  7,  17- 

rates  in  Philadelphia,  17. 
Stiff-leg  derrick,  147,  149. 
Storage,   definition   in   ship  opera- 
tion, 12. 

definition  of  terms,  303. 
fundamentals,  308. 
instructions    for   removing   mer- 
chandise, 319. 

instructions     for    stowing    mer- 
chandise, 313. 
Storage    order    for   goods    left    on 

wharf,  87. 

Store  clerk,  duties,  47. 
Stowage,  broken,   180,   197. 


35° 


INDEX 


Stowage,    damage    to    vessel    and 
cargo  avoided  by  careful,   32. 
effect  on  profits   in   ship   opera- 
tion, 29. 

laws  and  regulations,  201. 
planning  from  cargo  list,  176. 
responsibility    of    vessel    owners 

for  safe,  203. 

space  required  by  specified  com- 
modities, 30. 

Stowage  clerk,  duties,  46. 
Stowage  factor,   application  in  se- 
lecting cargoes,    191. 
average    for   steam    and    sailing 

vessels,  191. 
definition,  188. 
reduction,  examples,   196. 
Stowage  plan,  charts,  98,   185. 

discussion,  98,  182. 
Stowing  methods,  178,  195. 
Straight-line  crane,   163. 
Superintendent  of  wharf,  responsi- 
bility for  profitable  operation, 
I. 

Tally  sheet  for  lighter  transfer,  79. 
Tally  slips,  receiving  and  delivery, 

78. 

Tallymen,  duties,  50. 
Tank  vessels,  43. 
Telphers,  use  on  wharves,  232. 
Temperature,  danger  to  cargo,  224. 
Time    studies    in    cargo    transfer, 

233- 

Timekeeper,  duties,  52. 
Tonnage,  definitions,  31. 
Towage,  definition,  II. 
Tower  crane,  150. 
Transfer.     See  Cargo  transfer. 
Trucks  in  cargo  transfer,  231. 
Turn-around   of  vessel,   effect   on 

profits,  2. 

Uniform-package  freight,  definition 

and  handling,  39. 
Union  of  longshoremen,  62. 

Ventilation,  importance  in  safe  car- 
riage of  cargo,  226. 


Vermin,     methods     of    combating, 

227. 

Vertical  belt  conveyors,    170,    172. 
Vessels,    laws    defining    seaworthi- 
ness, 202. 
responsibility     of     owners     for 

safety,  202. 

special     construction     for     com- 
modities   with    low    stowage 
factors,    194,   200. 
types,  42. 
Voyage  account,  74. 

Wages  of  longshoremen,  64,  70. 
Warehouses,    relation    to    efficient 

wharf  management,  28. 
Warehousing,    average    occupancy 

of  storage  space,  329. 
classification  of  goods  for  stor- 
age, 326. 

cost  accounting,  334. 
definition  of  terms,  323. 
report  of  committee  on  standard- 
ization, 321. 

rules  for  management,  299,  323. 
Wear    and    tear,    effect    in    cargo 

handling,  228. 
Web  sling,   137. 
Wharf,  definition,  36. 
Wharf  charges  and  dues,  10. 
Wharf    congestion,    Havana,    and 
recommendations      of      Joint 
Cuban-American   Commission, 
263. 

New  Orleans,  and  recommenda- 
tions for  relief,  253. 
Philadelphia,  study,  272. 
Wharf  design,   effect  on  port  ex- 
penses, 27. 

Wharf  efficiency  and  shipping  prof- 
its, I. 

Wharf  equipment,  37. 
Wharf  office  organization,  45. 
Wharf    superintendent,    qualifica- 
tions, 45. 

Wharfage,  definition,  12. 
Winches,  electric,  126. 
kinds  and  types,  122. 
operation,  120. 
right-hand  and  left-hand,  122. 


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